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The immunization Programme was started in India in 1978 with the objective of reducing the mortality due to vaccine preventable diseases. Immunization coverage levels in infants and pregnant women have increased substantially over the last decade. Immunization coverage levels of 69 to 82% with various vaccines were reported in 1989-90. There is however, a wide disparity in the coverage levels in states and in the districts. While the priority to remains to increase immunization coverage levels, surveillance of vaccine preventable diseases is receiving high priority to identify weak pockets for intensification of immunization services and to document impact. Besides completeness of reporting., emphasis of the surveillance system in many areas has shifted to obtaining information on cases as early as possible to allow epidemiological investigations and effective follow-up action. The achievements in a large number of districts show that the goal of universal immunization, while difficult and challenging, is attainable.

In India, virtually all outbreaks of viral hepatitis are considered to be due to faeco-orally transmitted hepatitis E virus. Recently, a cluster of 15 cases of viral hepatitis B was found in three villages in Gujarat State. The cases were epidemiologically linked to the use of inadequately sterilized needles and syringes by a local unqualified medical practitioner. The outbreak evolved slowly over a period of 3 months and was marked by a high case fatality rate (46.7%), probably because of concurrent infection with hepatitis D virus (HDV) or sexually transmitted infections. But for the many fatalities within 2-3 weeks of the onset of illness, the outbreak would have gone unnoticed. The findings emphasize the importance of inadequately sterilized needles and syringes in the transmission of viral hepatitis B in India, the need to strengthen the routine surveillance system, and to organize an education campaign targeting all health care workers including private practitioners, especially those working in rural areas, as well as the public at large, to take all possible measures to prevent this often fatal infection., Introduction In India, virtually all outbreaks of viral hepatitis are considered to be due to faeco-orally transmitted hepatitis non-A, non-B virus (HEV) (1-3). Outbreaks of viral hepatitis A have also [...]

The poliomyelitis surveillance program and the efficacy of the trivalent oral poliovaccine (OPV) are described for the period 1982 to 1987 for Bombay, India. Data from earlier reports indicated that the estimated efficacy for OPV was 86 percent for the period 1971 to 1982. Current estimates were made using two techniques of the case exposure method. The first was a screening procedure reporting only doses administered and the immunization status of all polio cases. This method appeared to understate the true vaccine efficacy. The second technique used data on children of the same age group, geographical region, and study year and other demographics obtained from immunization coverage surveys, as well as immunization status data of polio cases. Data developed from the second approach produced results showing OPV vaccine efficacy exceeding 90 percent in fully immunized children between the ages of 12 and 23 months. The occurrence of polio in Bombay was found to be due to the failure to vaccinate all eligible candidates at a young age rather than to be due to vaccine failures. It was also found that greater success in reducing the incidence of disease was achieved by emphasizing programs directed at children under one year old. This emphasis, however, should not be at the expense of other unvaccinated persons. (Consumer Summary produced by Reliance Medical Information, Inc.), Poliomyelitis surveillance and vaccine efficacy in Bombay, 1982-87 Introduction A report has previously appeared on poliomyelitis surveillance and vaccine efficacy in Bombay, determined from data in the Annual Reports of [...]

One of the aims of the WHO Global Action Plan for Influenza Vaccines (GAP) was to transfer influenza vaccine production technology to interested manufacturers and governments in developing countries, to enable greater influenza vaccine manufacturing capacity against any pandemic threat or pandemic. For this objective, the GAP was supported by an independent Technical Advisory Group (TAG) to assist WHO to select vaccine manufacturing proposals for funding and to provide programmatic support for successful grantees. While there were many challenges, for both the TAG and grantees, there were also notable successes with an additional capacity of 338-600 million pandemic vaccine doses being made possible by the programme between 2007 and 2015, and a potential capacity of more than 600 million by 2016/17 with up to one billion doses expected by 2018/19. Seasonal vaccine production was also developed in 4 countries with another 4-5 countries expected to be producing seasonal vaccine by 2018/19. The relatively small WHO investments - in time and funding - made in these companies to develop their own influenza vaccine production facilities have had quite dramatic results., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Recent studies have shown the potential of water-repellent surfaces such as superhydrophobic surfaces in delaying ice accretion and reducing ice adhesion. However, conflicting trends in superhydrophobic ice adhesion strength were reported by previous studies. Hence, this investigation was performed to study the ice adhesion strength of hydrophobic and superhydrophobic coatings under realistic atmospheric icing conditions, i.e., supercooled spray of 20 μm mean volume diameter (MVD) droplets in a freezing (-20 °C), thermally homogeneous environment. The ice was released in a tensile direction by underside air pressure in a Mode-1 ice fracture condition. Results showed a strong effect of water repellency (increased contact and receding angles) on ice adhesion strength for hydrophobic surfaces. However, the extreme water repellency of nanocomposite superhydrophobic surfaces did not provide further adhesion strength reductions. Rather, ice adhesion strength for superhydrophobic surfaces depended primarily on the surface topology spatial parameter of autocorrelation length (Sal), whereby surface features in close proximities associated with a higher capillary pressure were better able to resist droplet penetration. Effects from other surface height parameters (e.g., arithmetic mean roughness, kurtosis, and skewness) were secondary.

Background: Little information exists regarding the burden of HIV among tuberculosis patients in India, and no population-based surveys have been previously reported. A community-based HIV prevalence survey was conducted among tuberculosis patients treated by the national tuberculosis control programme to evaluate the HIV prevalence among tuberculosis patients in India., Methodology/principal Findings: Fifteen districts (total population: 40.2 million) across 8 states were stratified by HIV prevalence in antenatal clinic HIV surveillance sites and randomly selected. From December 2006 to May 2007, remnant serum was collected from patients' clinical specimens taken after 2 months of anti-tuberculosis treatment and subjected to anonymous, unlinked HIV testing. Specimens were obtained and successfully tested for 5,995 (73%) of 8,217 tuberculosis patients eligible for the survey. HIV prevalence ranged widely among the 15 surveyed districts, from 1% in Koch Bihar, West Bengal, to 13.8% in Guntur, Andhra Pradesh. HIV infection was 1.3 times more likely among male TB patients than among female patients. Relative to smear-positive tuberculosis, HIV infection was 1.4 times more likely among smear-negative patients and 1.3 times more likely among extrapulmonary patients. In 4 higher-HIV prevalence districts, which had been previously surveyed in 2005-2006, no significant change in HIV prevalence was detected., Conclusions: The burden of HIV among tuberculosis patients varies widely in India. Programme efforts to implement comprehensive TB-HIV services should be targeted to areas with the highest HIV burden. Surveillance through routine reporting or special surveys is necessary to detect areas requiring intensification of TB-HIV collaborative activities.

Foetal calf serum present in the media used for cryopreservation was replaced by various synthetic polymer such as gelatin, glycerol, carboxymethyl cellulose and dimethyl sulphoxide at various concentration. Growth pattern of cells, % survival and karyological studies have been done in the present study. It was found that optimum concentration of carboxymethyl cellulose was 0.1% in combination with 10% glycerol and 10% DMSO. At this concentration percentage survival of cells was found maximum and karyotype was found normal without any abnormality in the chromosomes. It was concluded from the study that serum free media can be employed for the cryopreservation of these cells which are further used for production of tissue culture vaccines without causing any adverse affects.

Anthrax is a zoonotic disease caused by Bacillus anthracis. Intestinal anthrax though a rare entity mostly ends with fatal outcome. Very few cases of intestinal anthrax are reported. Present outbreak of intestinal anthrax is unique in itself that four cases succumbed to the illness within a span of 48-72 hours in a small hamlet of Mysore district of Karnataka, after consuming diseased deer meat. Confirmation of the diagnosis was carried out at NICD, Delhi by bacteriological culture isolation, biochemical tests, animal pathogenicity and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). This outbreak clearly indicates surveillance of anthrax in animals in endemic areas is an essential part in the control of the disease with intersectoral coordination between the departments of health, animal husbandary, agriculture and forest.

In the present report thiomersal was detected as interfering substance in hepatitis B vaccines during the total protein estimation by Lowry's protein assay. The thiomersal at different concentrations of 0.005%, 0.0075%, 0.01%, 0.02%, 0.05% and 0.1% was found to reduce the Folin Ciocalteu's phenol reagent and produce colour development between 0.024 O.D to 1.023 O.D. values. Further, the thiomersal was shown to interfere between 34.55% to 52.73% with Folin Ciocalteu's phenol reagent, when 10 batches of different hepatitis B vaccines were subjected to estimation of total protein content by Lowry's protein assay., (Copyright 2002 The International Association for Biologicals. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To describe the epidemiological characteristics of rabies in Delhi in 1998., Methods: Analysis of the records of hydrophobia cases admitted to the Infectious Diseases Hospital, Delhi (IDH) in 1998., Results: About 46 percent (99/215) of the hydrophobia cases admitted to the IDH in 1998 belonged to Delhi. The remaining came from the adjoining states, both urban and rural areas. In Delhi residents, overall hospitalization rate was 0.81 per 100,000 population. It was significantly higher in 5-14 year old than in other age groups and in males than in females (p <0.0009). Cases occurred round the year. Almost 96 percent cases (206/215) gave history of animal exposure, 13 days to 10 years (median 60 days) before hospitalization. Majority (195/206) had class III exposure. Animals involved were stray dog (193/206 = 90 percent), pet dog, cat, jackal, mongoose, monkey and fox. Most of cases were never vaccinated (78 percent) or inadequately vaccinated (22 percent); only 1 percent each received appropriate wound treatment, or rabies immunoglobulin., Conclusions: Rabies is a major public health problem in Delhi. Its incidence is significantly higher in 5-14 year old children than in other age groups. The results indicate the need to educate the community and health care workers about the importance of immediate and adequate post-exposure treatment and to start an effective control program for dogs, the principal vector of rabies.

Objective: To discover the cause of acute renal failure in 36 children aged 2 months to 6 years who were admitted to two hospitals in Delhi between 1 April and 9 June 1998., Methods: Data were collected from hospital records, parents and doctors of the patients, and district health officials. Further information was obtained from house visits and community surveys; blood and stool samples were collected from other ill children, healthy family members and community contacts. Samples of drinking-water and water from a tube-well were tested for coliform organisms., Findings: Most of the children (26/36) were from the Gurgaon district in Haryana or had visited Gurgaon town for treatment of a minor illness. Acute renal failure developed after an episode of acute febrile illness with or without watery diarrhoea or mild respiratory symptoms for which the children had been treated with unknown medicines by private medical practitioners. On admission to hospital the children were not dehydrated. Median blood urea concentration was 150 mg/dl (range 79-311 mg/dl) and median serum creatinine concentration was 5.6 mg/dl (range 2.6-10.8 mg/dl). Kidney biopsy showed acute tubular necrosis. Thirty-three children were known to have died despite being treated with peritoneal dialysis and supportive therapy., Conclusion: Cough expectorant manufactured by a company in Gurgaon was found to be contaminated with diethylene glycol (17.5% v/v), but a sample of acetaminophen manufactured by the same company tested negative for contamination when gas-liquid chromatography was used. Thus, poisoning with diethylene glycol seems to be the cause of acute renal failure in these children.

Using senior health professionals as interviewers, a 30-cluster sampling survey was carried out to investigate community perceptions of pilia (the local word for jaundice) in east Delhi (India). Of 416 persons (mostly mothers of children aged < 2 years) interviewed, 339 (81%) were aware of pilia as an illness. Only 322 (77%), 164 (39%), 73 (18%) and 71 (17%) people knew about correct symptoms, dangers, causes and prevention of pilia. Most of the correct responses were related to the faeco-orally transmitted viral hepatitis. Literate respondents were significantly more aware of pilia (chi 2 52.81, P < 0.0001), its symptoms (chi 2 48.88, P < 0.0001), causes (chi 2 39.34, P < 0.0001), dangers (chi 2 19.3, P = 0.0007), and prevention (chi 2 60.8, P < 0.0001). However, age of the respondents had no significant bearing (P > or = 0.05) on the correctness of responses. About 293 (70%) subjects considered pilia as a treatable illness; of them, 193 (66%) and 77 (26%) respectively expressed their preference for the 'modern' and indigenous systems of medicine for its treatment. In contrast, 110 (38%) respondents said that they would prefer faith healers for the treatment of pilia. Although only 31 (7%) persons were aware of a vaccine against pilia (hepatitis B vaccine), virtually all agreed to have their children immunized if such a vaccine were made available. The study underscores the usefulness of pilia in lay-reporting of viral hepatitis and epidemiological studies on jaundice-associated illnesses and the need for educating the community about its causes and prevention to increase people's participation in controlling viral hepatitis and other diseases that mainly manifest as jaundice.

Laboratory studies were carried out to ascertain the current susceptibility status of adult and larval stages of the Culex tritaeniorhynchus mosquito, vector of Japanese encephalitis, to various insecticides used under public health programs in India. The present study revealed that exposure of adult mosquitoes to diagnostic concentrations of DDT - 4.0%, malathion - 5.0%, fenitrothion - 1.0%, and propoxur - 0.1% could induce only 50.0, 10. 0, 15.0, and 5.0% mortality, respectively, indicating that the species was resistant to all of these insecticides. The LT50 and LT95 values calculated using diagnostic concentrations of DDT, malathion, fenitrothion, and propoxur were found to be 56.4 and 136, 138 and 272, 185 and 258, and 187 and 249 min, respectively. However, when adult mosquitoes were exposed to the diagnostic concentration of synthetic pyrethroids, viz., deltamethrin - 0.025%, permethrin - 0.25%, and lambdacyhalothrin - 0.1%, 100.0% mortality was observed, indicating that the species was highly susceptible to these adulticides. Larval susceptibility tests carried out using diagnostic dosages of DDT- 0.008, temephos- 0.02, fenthion- 0.008, fenitrothion- 0.125, and malathion- 0.005 mg/l failed to induce any mortality, indicating that larvae were resistant to these larvicides. The LC50 and LC90 values calculated for commonly used larvicides, viz., temephos and fenthion, were 0.1511 and 1.9098, and 0.6151 and 2.395 mg/l, respectively. Increase in tolerance level were estimated at 95.5- and 299.4-fold when these LC90 values were compared with diagnostic dosages of temephos and fenthion, respectively.

Objective: To find out prevalence of HBsAg in general population, especially in under-five children., Setting: Bangalore and Rajahmundry towns in southern India., Methods: Localities were chosen as the sampling units in each town. About 10-20 households were randomly selected from each locality. Only the youngest but apparently healthy person present in the household was interviewed for age, sex and history of jaundice any time in life. Mothers were interviewed to collect data for children below 15 years of age. Blood samples were collected from these persons on filter paper strips (18-mm diameter disc, Whatman filter paper No. 3) by finger prick method. The samples were tested for HBsAg by Micro ELISA (Ortho-Clinical Diagnostics)., Results: Overall, 3.3% (95% CI, 2.0-4.5) of 737 persons in Rajahmundry and 4.2% (95% CI, 2.8-5.5) of 816 persons in Bangalore were found carriers of HBsAg. Age-specific or sex specific carrier rates were similar in Rajahmundry as well as in Bangalore. Most of the carriers (96%) denied having jaundice ever in life., Conclusions: The results from this community based study are in agreement with the historical data from hospital based studies that about 3-5% of persons may be carriers of HBsAg and that the pool of chronic carriers of hepatitis B virus in India is built up in childhood and is then maintained in older children and adults. The results highlight the need of completing hepatitis B immunization during the infancy.

Objective: To describe the epidemiological characteristics of poliomyelitis in Delhi in 1997 after four consecutive statewide immunization campaigns with oral polio vaccine (OPV)., Methods: Stool samples were collected from 158 cases of acute flaccid paralysis (AFP) along with their age, sex, residential address, immunization history and dates of onset of paralysis, reporting and investigation. The samples were processed for isolation of polioviruses. In addition, historical data on vaccination coverage surveys and OPV testing were reviewed. These data were analyzed to understand the epidemiological patterns of poliomyelitis in Delhi., Results: Of 158 cases of AFP, about 23% were investigated within 2 days of onset of paralysis. Two samples each were collected from 97 (61%) cases, and one each from the remaining cases. Detection of 158 cases of AFP gave an incidence of 1.34 per 100,000 population. About 36% (57/158) of AFP cases excreted poliovirus, mostly (53/158) wild poliovirus. Of the wild poliovirus isolates, 72% (38/53) and 25% (13/53) were serotypes P1 and P3 respectively; 2 isolates were P2. Almost 95% (146/154) of AFP cases and all the laboratory confirmed cases (excreting wild poliovirus) occurred in children below 5 years of age. Only one-third of AFP (55/158) or laboratory confirmed cases (18/53) had received 3 or more doses of OPV before onset of paralysis. About one-fourth of cases in both the categories were totally unvaccinated. AFP cases occurred round the year but peaked in November-December. Peaks were always observed during July-August in the past. The cases were widely scattered without any obvious clustering in any locality., Conclusions: Poliomyelitis has declined substantially in Delhi. The study underscores the need for further efforts to improve vaccine coverage levels, AFP surveillance, and cold chain maintenance to achieve the complete interruption of transmission.

During the period 1990-91, 3222 Salmonella strains were identified at the National Salmonella and Escherichia Centre (NSEC) at Central Research Institute, Kasauli. Of these, 2894 were from humans, 226 from poultry, 84 from animals and remaining 18 from reptiles, birds and other sources. These strains belonged to 53 different serotypes. These include 4 serotypes reported for the first time in India, namely S. kedogou, S. VP. bornheim, S. kisarawe and S. madras. Drug resistance studies revealed that 573 strains were sensitive to all the antibiotics commonly used, 1351 single drug resistant, 594 resistant to two drugs and 704 were multidrug resistant. One strain from human stool was resistant to all the antibiotics used. Prevalence of various Salmonella serotypes and their response to various drugs is discussed.

Objective: To find out the patterns of and the factors, if any, affecting the transplacental transfer of measles antibody., Design: Comparison of measles antibody titres in mothers with titres in cord blood samples., Methods: Maternal and cord blood samples from 174 full-term pregnant women of middle socio-economic status were tested for hemagglutination inhibition (HI) antibody against measles in Delhi during October 1993 to January 1995. None of the mothers had been immunized against measles., Results: Antibody were undetectable in both maternal and cord samples in only 4 (2.3%) pairs. Mean maternal titre was found to be 2.94 Log2. Transplacental concentration and dilution were respectively observed in 34% and 26% of the samples. Cord titres were more often higher than the maternal values only if the maternal values were low. Overall, cord/maternal ratio of mean titre (Log2) was found to be 1.06. Although the age of the mother and parity had had no significant bearing on the transplacental transfer of measles antibody, cord titres were significantly more often higher than the maternal values as the birth weight increased (Chi-square for linear trend = 5.4; p = 0.02)., Conclusions: The study failed to show appreciable concentration of measles antibodies across the placenta.

A total of 200 urinary isolates of Esch.coli received at National Salmonella and Escherichia Centre, Central Research Institute, Kasauli during the years 1995 to 1997 were studied for transferable drug resistance. Out of 188 strains, 134 strains showing resistance to either Nalidixic acid or Rifampicin were subjected to autotransferable resistance studies. Of these 134 strains 131 showed either partial or enbloc transfer of R-factor. Mobilization experiment successfully transferred resistance marker in 14 of the 68 isolates in which resistance to one or more drugs could not be transferred during conjugation experiment.