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Soil characteristic and properties are essential determinants for effective land management. Soil genesis results from the interaction of various pedogenic factors, which are influenced by environmental conditions, thereby producing diverse soil types in different locations. This study was conducted in the Wonosalam sub-district, an area characterized by diverse regional conditions due to its varied physiographic features. The physiographic and climatic conditions in this region significantly influence soil formation processes. This research focused on monitoring soil development at several locations within Wonosalam, specifically at the UPN "Veteran" Jawa Timur experimental field. The study included five observation points, categorized by land map units: PW1, PW2, PW3, PW4, and PW5. Morphological analyses indicate the presence of two distinct soil types among the five observation points. The soils in PW1, PW2, PW3, and PW4 are classified under the Alfisols order, specifically within the Typic Hapludalf subgroup. In contrast, the soil at PW5 belongs to the Inceptisols order, specifically the Typic Humudepts subgroup. This diversity suggests that the area encompasses soils of different orders. The soil characteristic data obtained from the UPN "Veteran" Jawa Timur experimental field can be utilized as a basis for planning the management of the area.

Soil characteristic and properties are essential determinants for effective land management. Soil genesis results from the interaction of various pedogenic factors, which are influenced by environmental conditions, thereby producing diverse soil types in different locations. This study was conducted in the Wonosalam sub-district, an area characterized by diverse regional conditions due to its varied physiographic features. The physiographic and climatic conditions in this region significantly influence soil formation processes. This research focused on monitoring soil development at several locations within Wonosalam, specifically at the UPN "Veteran" Jawa Timur experimental field. The study included five observation points, categorized by land map units: PW1, PW2, PW3, PW4, and PW5. Morphological analyses indicate the presence of two distinct soil types among the five observation points. The soils in PW1, PW2, PW3, and PW4 are classified under the Alfisols order, specifically within the Typic Hapludalf subgroup. In contrast, the soil at PW5 belongs to the Inceptisols order, specifically the Typic Humudepts subgroup. This diversity suggests that the area encompasses soils of different orders. The soil characteristic data obtained from the UPN "Veteran" Jawa Timur experimental field can be utilized as a basis for planning the management of the area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indonesia is in the ring of fire, which has an impact on the characteristics of volcanoes, one of which is Mount Raung. Mount Raung, part of the Iyang-Argopura mountains, has a role in influencing the development of soil types and the environment; it was recorded in 1586, 1987, 1597, and 1638. Soil types and environmental parameters have an influence on critical land conditions. Remote sensing technology has been used in various fields, one of which is land evaluation. This study examined the distribution of soil characteristics and the mapping of critical lands through remote sensing approaches. The method used to identify the morphological characteristics of soil classification and the potential for critical land was a descriptive-exploratory method. The results of the research on soil types are divided into three orders, namely Andisols, Inceptisols, and Alfisols. The three land orders are divided into nine great groups, with Lithic Eutrudepts having the highest area of 38.02%, followed by Typic Hapludalfs (21.70%), Typic Eutrudepts (9.79%), Typic Epiaquepts (7.84%), Aquic Eutrudepts (7.71%), Aquic Eutrudepts (5.64%), Fluventic Epiaquepts (5.30%), Typic Udivitrands (2.16%), and Vitric Hapludands (1.83%). Critical land based on the analysis of five factors of erosion, land use, slope, rainfall, and soil canopy density, is divided into four criteria i.e., critical area of 895.88 ha, medium critical 9,027.69 ha, and lightly critical of 14,096.89 ha. Land use, slope, and plant canopy density play a major role in the potential for critical land with a strong-very-strong level of closeness (0.350-0.610).

Fly ashes produced in huge amounts during coal combustion requires proper management. The purpose of this study was to determine the impact of fly ash from burning hard coal used in large doses (250, 500, 1000 and 2000 t ha−1) on soil properties and vegetation of fresh mixed coniferous forest within 43 years from the ash application. The experiment was established in the Podzols in the forest habitat of Czułów, Katowice Forest district, Upper Silesia, Poland. Eight tree species were planted in ridges created by ploughing: Pinus sylvestris, P. nigra, Larix decidua, Betula pendula, Quercus robur, Q., Acer pseudoplatanus and Fagus sylvatica. The changes in soil morphology caused significant transformations in the physical and chemical properties of the soil such as soil texture, pH, macronutrients (P, K and Mg) content and C:N ratio. Increasing of ash doses changed the granulometric composition of the soil levels from loamy sand (250 t/ha−1) to silt loam (2000 t ha−1). Initially, the acidic Podzols were alkalized under the influence of the fly ash and then acidified, possibly due to the impact of accumulated litter layers, and the reaction of organic soil horizons changed from strongly acidic (250–1000 t ha−1) to alkalis (2000 t/ha−1). The macronutrients content increased in proportion to the fly ash dose, but the subsequent acidification resulted in a gradual decrease in the macronutrients share in the soil layers. The value of the C:N ratio grew after the ash application and then it gradually reduced, even by half. The transformations of soil horizons' properties also increased the capacity of the soil sorption complex (CEC). All these processes led to a change in the trophic status of the habitat expressed by the soil habitat index (SIG) and the initial coniferous forest site can be classified as a mixed forest habitat even with the lowest ash dose used. The composition of plant communities developed forty years after the ash application was similar at the lower ash doses and the most frequent and abundant tree species were L. decidua, P. nigra and P. silvestris. B. pendula was previously co-dominant, but it was eliminated from the tree stands during the experiment. Planted trees characteristic of late stages of succession, such as Q. robur, Q. rubra, F. sylvatica and A. pseudoplatanus either did not survive or remained in very low quantities. The herb and moss layers developed in the process of spontaneous colonization, and together with the trees led to phytostabilisation of the bare substrates. After acidification of the topsoil horizons, the herb layers consisted mostly of coniferous, mixed, and deciduous forest species, and the most frequent or abundant were Lysimachia europea and Pteridium aquilinum. The moss layers were represented by coniferous forest flora. At the ash dose of 2000 t ha−1, Tilia cordata settled in one of the seral stages of spontaneous succession and this species dominated in the community and formed a dense tree stand. After the soil acidification, a shift from calcicole to calcifuge plant strategy took place among species of the herbaceous layer. The transformations of plant communities' composition occurred in relation to changes in the soil properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The loess-paleosol sequence of the Alma-Peschanoe section located in the west of the Crimean Peninsula is analyzed. A comprehensive analysis of morphological, physicochemical, and some other features enables us to identify eight paleosols formed under different conditions. The supposed age of the loess-paleosol sequence was determined by the paleofaunal analysis based on the discovery of a tooth from the mouse Micromys cf. bendae. According to the data obtained, the formation of paleosols at the initial stage was rhythmical under dry and moderately warm conditions. The paleosols were formed according to the steppe type of soil formation (Kastanozems in the WRB). Later, the climate changed towards an increase in temperature and humidity, and two red-brown polygenetic paleosols were formed. Their formation was gradual under conditions from arid to hot humid subtropical climate; at the optimal stages of soil evolution, the soils were formed according to the fersiallitic type (Nitisols). At the final stages, paleosols were formed under sharp changes in the regimes of moistening—drying. The studied red paleosols may be presumably assigned to the Sevastopol stratigraphic horizon. The studies performed enable us to characterize the landscape-climatic conditions and to elaborate a concept of the genesis of the soil cover in the Early Pliocene. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Maastrichtian age dinosaur-bearing Lameta Formation in Central India is a pedogenically modified sedimentary succession. This succession records various pedogenic signatures such as the obliteration of bedding, root traces, burrows, soil structures, and soil horizons, indicating distinct paleosol types, which provide information about the associated paleoclimatic and paleoenvironmental conditions. In the present study, combining soil morphology and micromorphology, we recognized, classified, and interpreted eleven paleosol profiles preserved in the Lower Limestone and Mottled Nodular Bed Unit of the Lameta Formation, exposed in the Jabalpur subregion in Central India. The studied paleosols were divided into five different pedotypes (soil types) based on the majority/stage of development of pedogenic features. The observed pedotypes are compound and composite paleosol profiles, composed of entisols, hydromorphic calcic-inceptisols, gleyed alfisols, and well-developed alfisols. This variation in observed pedotypes represent the characteristics of a soil catena. In this soil catena, the variation in paleosol profiles is related to the variation in hydrology and relief of the landscape. The better-drained paleosols are forming on higher grounds, whereas poorly drained paleosols are forming in lowlands. The identified pedotypes with varying drainage and maturity are used to reconstruct the paleolandscape as an agglomeration of seasonal wetlands and dry lands. Further, based on several pedogenic features, the Lameta sediments are interpreted to have been deposited in tropical warm, humid climatic conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fly ashes produced in huge amounts during coal combustion requires proper management. The purpose of this study was to determine the impact of fly ash from burning hard coal used in large doses (250, 500, 1000 and 2000 t ha−1) on soil properties and vegetation of fresh mixed coniferous forest within 43 years from the ash application. The experiment was established in the Podzols in the forest habitat of Czułów, Katowice Forest district, Upper Silesia, Poland. Eight tree species were planted in ridges created by ploughing: Pinus sylvestris, P. nigra, Larix decidua, Betula pendula, Quercus robur, Q., Acer pseudoplatanus and Fagus sylvatica. The changes in soil morphology caused significant transformations in the physical and chemical properties of the soil such as soil texture, pH, macronutrients (P, K and Mg) content and C:N ratio. Increasing of ash doses changed the granulometric composition of the soil levels from loamy sand (250 t/ha−1) to silt loam (2000 t ha−1). Initially, the acidic Podzols were alkalized under the influence of the fly ash and then acidified, possibly due to the impact of accumulated litter layers, and the reaction of organic soil horizons changed from strongly acidic (250–1000 t ha−1) to alkalis (2000 t/ha−1). The macronutrients content increased in proportion to the fly ash dose, but the subsequent acidification resulted in a gradual decrease in the macronutrients share in the soil layers. The value of the C:N ratio grew after the ash application and then it gradually reduced, even by half. The transformations of soil horizons’ properties also increased the capacity of the soil sorption complex (CEC). All these processes led to a change in the trophic status of the habitat expressed by the soil habitat index (SIG) and the initial coniferous forest site can be classified as a mixed forest habitat even with the lowest ash dose used. The composition of plant communities developed forty years after the ash application was similar at the lower ash doses and the most frequent and abundant tree species were L. decidua, P. nigra and P. silvestris. B. pendula was previously co-dominant, but it was eliminated from the tree stands during the experiment. Planted trees characteristic of late stages of succession, such as Q. robur, Q. rubra, F. sylvatica and A. pseudoplatanus either did not survive or remained in very low quantities. The herb and moss layers developed in the process of spontaneous colonization, and together with the trees led to phytostabilisation of the bare substrates. After acidification of the topsoil horizons, the herb layers consisted mostly of coniferous, mixed, and deciduous forest species, and the most frequent or abundant were Lysimachia europea and Pteridium aquilinum. The moss layers were represented by coniferous forest flora. At the ash dose of 2000 t ha−1, Tilia cordata settled in one of the seral stages of spontaneous succession and this species dominated in the community and formed a dense tree stand. After the soil acidification, a shift from calcicole to calcifuge plant strategy took place among species of the herbaceous layer. The transformations of plant communities’ composition occurred in relation to changes in the soil properties.

Scholars have classified soil to understand its complex and diverse characteristics. The current trend of precision agricultural technology demands a change in conventional soil identification methods. For example, soil color observed using Munsell color charts is subjective and lacks consistency among observers. Soil classification is essential for soil management and sustainable land utilization, thereby facilitating communication between different groups, such as farmers and pedologists. Misclassified soil can mislead processes; for example, it can hinder fertilizer delivery, affecting crop yield. On the other hand, deep learning approaches have facilitated computer vision technology, where machine-learning algorithms trained for image recognition, comparison, and pattern identification can classify soil better than or equal to human eyes. Moreover, the learning algorithm can contrast the current observation with previously examined data. In this regard, this study implements a convolutional neural network (CNN) model called Soil-MobiNet to classify soils. The Soil-MobiNet model implements the same pointwise and depthwise convolutions of the MobileNet, except the model uses the weight of the pointwise and depthwise separable convolutions plus an additional three dense layers for feature extraction. The model classified the Vellore Institute of Technology Soil (VITSoil) dataset, which is made up of 4864 soil images belonging to nine categories. The VITSoil dataset samples for Soil-MobiNet classification were collected over the Indian states and it is made up of nine major Indian soil types prepared by experts in soil science. With a training and validation accuracy of 98.47% and an average testing accuracy of 93%, Soil-MobiNet showed outstanding performance in categorizing the VITSoil dataset. In particular, the proposed Soil-MobiNet model can be used for real-time soil classification on mobile phones since the proposed system is small and portable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Collegiate soil judging competitions are organized as annual face-to-face events both regionally and nationally in the USA. Soil judging provides a competitive platform for students to identify and describe soil characteristics in the field. However, the COVID-19 pandemic forced soil judging contests to find new strategies to maintain student engagement and provide competitive opportunities for students to apply their knowledge of soils. In response, Region IV in the USA hosted a virtual regional contest in October 2020. The objectives of this study were to quantify students' and coaches' perspectives on virtual soil judging contests and evaluate the role of virtual soil judging contests as either a complement or alternative to in-person contests. We conducted post-contest surveys of students (n = 31; 86% response rate) and coaches (n = 6, 100% response rate) to assess student learning outcomes and reflections on the virtual soil judging contest. Students responded most favorably to the virtual format, citing the flexibility it provided. Coaches were satisfied with the virtual format but still preferred an in-person contest. Coaches also expressed concern that the virtual soil judging format would not accurately measure the full range of student's skills typically measured during in-person contests. Overall, the coaches and students reported that the virtual soil judging contest was helpful to gain experience with soil descriptions and enhance skills related to soil assessment and pedology. We conclude that virtual soil judging contest formats can be an inexpensive way to provide students with additional soil judging experiences when field-based formats are not feasible (e.g., health restrictions such as COVID-19) or economical (e.g., budget constraints on soil site selection, contest development, and travel), and that hybrid formats may be a way to encourage greater participation among students in soil judging contests without losing the in-person benefits gained by judging soils in the field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil water regime, as one of the key components of soil fertility, refers to the quantity, retention, and movement of soil water. Rather than through expensive and/or time-consuming measurements, it can be assessed from the field-observable morphological properties in the soil profile. Excessively wetted soils have a specific morphology, and are therefore often referred to as hydromorphic. Their morphology is caused by various soil redoximorphic features (RMFs), resulting from the reduction, translocation, and oxidation of iron and manganese oxides. Hydromorphic soils largely comprise Gleysols and Stagnosols (along with Gleyic Fluvisols) that are excessively wetted by groundwater, precipitation and/or flooded water. Their morphology is often described/analyzed with different terms/criteria in line with their global distribution. This complicates the comparison and classification of such soils and thus their use or reclamation. This review paper describes and compares common RMFs and explains their formation. It then proposes the revised Croatian terms for these features, which are in line with the terms used in the international soil classification systems of WRB and/or Soil Taxonomy. Furthermore, the criteria/rules used for diagnosing RMFs when classifying hydromorphic soils are critically reviewed. Finally, it is shown that a methodologically sound RMFs description can provide a quick insight into the crucial soil water regime parameters, such as location and duration of soil saturation, the origin of the excess soil water, recentness of excessive soil wetting, etc. However, depending on the research objectives and/or actual soil conditions, field soil description cannot always fully replace continuous field monitoring of the soil water regime and/or laboratory and micromorphological soil analyses.

Quartzipsamments are environmentally fragile soils, being highly susceptible to water and wind erosion. Despite this, it seems that political and economic issues favor the advancement of agriculture in these soils. Therefore, studies are necessary for a better understanding of these soils and to minimize the impacts of land use. This work aims to characterize the morphological, physical–hydric, and chemical properties of Quartzipsamments under sandyzation in southwest Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil. Soil morphology was evaluated in six profiles in areas under native field with the presence of gullies, and soil samples with preserved and non-preserved structures were collected to evaluate the physical–hydric and chemical properties. We verified that these soils have high macroporosity (0.253 to 0.373 m3 m−3) and saturated hydraulic conductivity (127.85 to 672.26 mm h−1), and predominantly low organic matter (0.05 to 2.36%) and clay (23.03 to 126.29 g kg−1) content, but correlation analysis showed that increasing pH and organic matter can improve the fertility of these soils. Quartzipsamments have a low volume of available water to plants (0.006 to 0.038 m3 m−3) and have a potential risk of leaching and aquifer contamination. The use of these soils demands the adoption of conservation practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil develops from the rocks of the Waturanda Formation in Lebakwangi Village is from sedimentary tertiary volcanic activity. The purpose of this study was to identify the soil morphology and soil classification in the Waturanda Formation with forest and dry land use according to the Soil Taxonomy 2014, World Reference Base 2015, and National Soil Classification 2016. The soil profile from the topsoil to subsoil under the forest land use was dominated by clay texture (49.04%-56.46%), with particle density 1.20-1.24 g cm-3, bulk density 1.64-1.82 g cm-3, pH (H2O) 4.05-4.68, pH (KCl) 3.42-3.55, organic C 1.47-2.29%, CEC 13.05-19.60 cmol(+) kg-1, and saturation base 24.35%-73.70%. Similarly, the soil profile under the dryland use was dominated by clay texture (37.06%-62.60%), with particle density 1.10-1.20 g cm-3, bulk density 1.58-1.75 g cm-3, pH (H2O) 4.32-4.54, pH (KCl) 3.49-3.65, organic C 0.96-1.66%, CEC 19.95-25.81 cmol(+) kg-1, and saturation base 58.35%-95.43%. Both soil profiles have an udic humidity regime and isohyperthermic soil temperature regime. Soil classification according to Soil Taxonomy, WRB, and NSC for forest land is Humic Eutrudepts, Clayic Haplic Luvisols, and Eutrict Cambisols, while for dryland use is Pachic Hapludolls, Clayic Haplic Luvisols, and Haplic Molisols.

The article considered the current state of the soil cover of the Southern Balkhash region. Morphological features of soil images are described, mechanical and chemical composition is determined. According to the morphological characteristics of the soil, it was found that the first image soil is gray soil, the second image soil is grayish yellow sandy soil, and the third image soil belongs to the Sandy orange soil type. The composition of all soil images was dominated by fine sand and coarse dust fractions. Since the chemical composition of the soil is one of its main agrochemical properties, the content of nutrient elements has been determined. As a result, it was found that nitrogen - low, phosphorus - medium, potassium - was sufficiently contained. The content of nutrient elements was higher in the surface layers of the soil than in the lower layers. The humus content is very low. It was found that the reaction of the soil medium is alkaline. The alkalinity of soils increased with the depth of the soil. Soil images on absorbed bases were characterized by a set of absorbed bases of low size (5 - 10 ml-eqv/100 g of soil). The water filtration of the soil was dominated by bicarbonate (NSO3-) ions and CA cation. In terms of the set of salt content, all soil images belong to the category of unsalted, that is, the set of salts was below 0.2%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The central images and main areas of Vertisols and Cryosols differ greatly. However, in recent years, Vertisols have been found in the permafrost area, and in some paleosols, both paleocryogenic and vertic features have been noted. In this regard, the study of common features and differences at different levels of organization of Cryosols and Vertisols becomes relevant. The formation of diagnostic features of Vertisols and Cryosols is due to physical processes. Despite the different mechanisms of these processes (shrinkage and swelling of clay minerals, formation and melting of ice), they lead to the development of a number of morphologically similar features at the macro-, meso-, and microlevels, including microtopography, mosaic profile patterns, wavy and discontinuous genetic horizons, cracking, types of structure, and some microfeatures. The analysis, generalization, and systematization of literature and own data on the morphology of Vertisols and Cryosols at different levels of their structural organization are discussed in this paper.. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Human activities in the range of natural resources affect the sustainability or instability of ecosystems. Therefore, data interpretation and analysis related to these activities can play a pivotal role in assessing environmental issues and problems. Based on the results, then can plan for the sustainable development of natural resources and their optimal management. The aim of this study was to analyze human activities in the watershed to investigate the development of rainfed orchards on sloping lands and the stability or instability of related activities. For this purpose, field studies were conducted in two regions of arid (Birjand) and Mediterranean (Khalkhal) and the impact of the orchard estabilishment on the lands of these regions was analyzed. Contrary to expectations, in the arid region with about 170 mm of rainfall, the orchard estabilishment was successful and accompanied by sustainable development, and in the Mediterranean region with more than 350 mm of rainfall, this project was considered failed and unstable. One of the most important factors for the success of this project in the arid region was having indigenous knowledge in creating dams in suitable areas by collecting runoff and sediments, according to the parent materials and the resulting soil. In contrast, the lack of indigenous or formal knowledge in the Mediterranean region, followed by a lack of attention to soil constraints, some of which are affected by parent materials, is one of the main reasons for the failure of the project in this region. Based on the results, it can be said that for sustainable management of soil and water resources and achieving sustainable development, special attention should be paid to indigenous knowledge along with formal knowledge so that based on the ecological potential of the region can be optimal decision, planning and management for human activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scholars have classified soil to understand its complex and diverse characteristics. The current trend of precision agricultural technology demands a change in conventional soil identification methods. For example, soil color observed using Munsell color charts is subjective and lacks consistency among observers. Soil classification is essential for soil management and sustainable land utilization, thereby facilitating communication between different groups, such as farmers and pedologists. Misclassified soil can mislead processes; for example, it can hinder fertilizer delivery, affecting crop yield. On the other hand, deep learning approaches have facilitated computer vision technology, where machine-learning algorithms trained for image recognition, comparison, and pattern identification can classify soil better than or equal to human eyes. Moreover, the learning algorithm can contrast the current observation with previously examined data. In this regard, this study implements a convolutional neural network (CNN) model called Soil-MobiNet to classify soils. The Soil-MobiNet model implements the same pointwise and depthwise convolutions of the MobileNet, except the model uses the weight of the pointwise and depthwise separable convolutions plus an additional three dense layers for feature extraction. The model classified the Vellore Institute of Technology Soil (VITSoil) dataset, which is made up of 4864 soil images belonging to nine categories. The VITSoil dataset samples for Soil-MobiNet classification were collected over the Indian states and it is made up of nine major Indian soil types prepared by experts in soil science. With a training and validation accuracy of 98.47% and an average testing accuracy of 93%, Soil-MobiNet showed outstanding performance in categorizing the VITSoil dataset. In particular, the proposed Soil-MobiNet model can be used for real-time soil classification on mobile phones since the proposed system is small and portable.

Collegiate soil judging competitions are organized as annual face-to-face events both regionally and nationally in the USA. Soil judging provides a competitive platform for students to identify and describe soil characteristics in the field. However, the COVID-19 pandemic forced soil judging contests to find new strategies to maintain student engagement and provide competitive opportunities for students to apply their knowledge of soils. In response, Region IV in the USA hosted a virtual regional contest in October 2020. The objectives of this study were to quantify students’ and coaches’ perspectives on virtual soil judging contests and evaluate the role of virtual soil judging contests as either a complement or alternative to in-person contests. We conducted post-contest surveys of students (n = 31; 86% response rate) and coaches (n = 6, 100% response rate) to assess student learning outcomes and reflections on the virtual soil judging contest. Students responded most favorably to the virtual format, citing the flexibility it provided. Coaches were satisfied with the virtual format but still preferred an in-person contest. Coaches also expressed concern that the virtual soil judging format would not accurately measure the full range of student’s skills typically measured during in-person contests. Overall, the coaches and students reported that the virtual soil judging contest was helpful to gain experience with soil descriptions and enhance skills related to soil assessment and pedology. We conclude that virtual soil judging contest formats can be an inexpensive way to provide students with additional soil judging experiences when field-based formats are not feasible (e.g., health restrictions such as COVID-19) or economical (e.g., budget constraints on soil site selection, contest development, and travel), and that hybrid formats may be a way to encourage greater participation among students in soil judging contests without losing the in-person benefits gained by judging soils in the field.

There is a variation in the depth of subsurface horizon of Planosols in semi-arid region, which may influence the agricultural potential and affect food production. The general aim of this study was to identify potentialities and limitations of two Planosols as a function of subsurface horizon depth. The adjacent profiles P1 and P2 were studied in Pentecoste (Ceará, Brazil). Morphological, physical, and chemical analyses were done aiming at soil characterization. Soil bulk density (BD), porosity, and penetration resistance (PR) were analyzed in a completely randomized split-plot design with four replicates to compare P1 and P2 and the horizons Ap and Btf. Btf was found at 62cm depth in P1 and at 18 cm depth in P2. Indicatives of water saturation were more evident in P2. The profile P1 showed lower hardness and higher friability, as well as higher acidity in subsurface (pHH2O from 4.4 to 4.7) and higher aluminum content (1.2cmolc kg-1). Both profiles were eutrophic and showed low contents of organic carbon (1.5 to 8.5g kg-1) and phosphorus (0.9 to 3.9mg kg-1). The sodium percentage in CEC was 9.1% in P1 and 5.5% in P2. Water retention increases in Btf compared with Ap was 7.3% in P2 and 2.7% in P1. Both profiles showed increase in BD in Btf, reaching 1.7g cm-3, while PR was higher in P2 (1.5 MPa). There are potentialities and limitations common to both soil profiles, but P1 has more physical potentialities and more chemical limitations than P2.

Abstract Landslides are the second biggest natural disasters in Indonesia, occurring mostly in volcanic area with thick and clay rich soils. Examining the changes of land surface and soil morphology brought about by a particular landslide is usually the first step required for vegetative rehabilitation. Most examinations to date, however, have been based on general characters rather than on soil morphology, including physical and chemical characteristics of the soil, which are usually locally specific. This study investigates the morphological characteristics of soil in a landslide-prone slope region of Sumbing Volcano, in Central Java Province of Indonesia. The field investigations are conducted at three landslides sites. It starts with interpreting small format areal-photographs which have been geo-corrected, followed by the delineation of landslide zones (i.e. crowns, main scarps, heads, bodies and toes) based on morphological analysis of the landslide sites. Finally, identification of morphological, physical and chemical characteristics of the soil in each of the landslide zones are conducted in the field, along with laboratory tests. The results demonstrate that soil morphology is unique for each of the landslide zones. The characters of the undisturbed soil, as indicated by well-defined genetic horizons, are found in the crown zones. Outcrop of high clay content soil material layers are seen in the main scarp zones. Meanwhile pedoturbation processes are evident in the zone of bodies and toes, suggesting that the soil is prone for erosion. If natural erosions in these zones are not controlled and/or unmitigated, the situation will trigger landslide reactivations. We suggest that in studying landslide, one also considers the characters of soil morphology, as this additional information provides a more complete understanding of both land surface morphology and soil morphology to inform landslide vegetative rehabilitation.

Hydraulic conductivity is an essential base for applied research in soil and water management, landscape, and environmental disciplines. Saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat) is one of the most important soil physical properties, which is considered in the planning of irrigation and drainage and predicting other soil hydrological processes. However, it has been frequently reported that measurement of Ksat is laborious, time-consuming, and expensive due to its high spatial variability and this has motivated researchers to develop indirect methods such as pedotransfer functions (PTFs) for developing Ksat-database in regional and national scales. In this study, eight Ksat studies with the PTFs in Anatolian soils were reviewed. PTFs were evaluated regarding their type, predictors used, and their performance. The majority of studied PTFs were developed on alluvial, colluvial, and alkaline soils in semi-arid and semi-humid climates. Multiple linear regression (MLR) and artificial neural networks (ANNs) have been common PTFs, and soil texture, bulk density, organic matter content, and pH have been common predictors used with these PTFs. Root mean squared error (RMSE), mean absolute error (MAE), and coefficient of determination (R2) were the commonly used criteria in the verification and validation of the PTFs. Studies on the use of Ksat and PTFs are inadequate, and researches are still needed to be able to use it nationwide and can develop an adequate database. According to the results of PTF studies, the highest R2 and correlation coefficient (r) values belong to the Rosetta and MLR types of the PTFs, respectively. The lowest RMSE value was obtained with the equations in which the physical and chemical soil properties were used together as input data for PTFs. In addition, it has been noted that the soil morphological properties should be used as input data in PTFs studies, especially in Ksat estimation.

Land-use change and lack of conservation in Bogowonto Watershed area have caused land degradation due to erosion and landslides. The rate of land degradation can be measured through the morphological characteristics of the soil and landscape. This study aimed to identify the relationship between the morphological characteristics of the soil and the rate of land degradation in Bogowonto Watershed area. The research framework initiated from the interpretation of thematic maps, surveys and field observations, and verification using land degradation assessment software. Sample points were determined using a stratified random sampling method. In general, land degradation is affected by slope, limited soil development, suboptimal conservation measures, and land-use change. Particularly, land degradation is affected by the type of landscape and the morphological characteristics of the soil. Volcanic hilly landscapes show a degradation rate of fine to very fine, characterized by thick soil depth (>60 cm), generous root distribution, loamy textured soil, fine soil particle size (Ø

Quartzipsamments are environmentally fragile soils, being highly susceptible to water and wind erosion. Despite this, it seems that political and economic issues favor the advancement of agriculture in these soils. Therefore, studies are necessary for a better understanding of these soils and to minimize the impacts of land use. This work aims to characterize the morphological, physical–hydric, and chemical properties of Quartzipsamments under sandyzation in southwest Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil. Soil morphology was evaluated in six profiles in areas under native field with the presence of gullies, and soil samples with preserved and non-preserved structures were collected to evaluate the physical–hydric and chemical properties. We verified that these soils have high macroporosity (0.253 to 0.373 m3 m−3) and saturated hydraulic conductivity (127.85 to 672.26 mm h−1), and predominantly low organic matter (0.05 to 2.36%) and clay (23.03 to 126.29 g kg−1) content, but correlation analysis showed that increasing pH and organic matter can improve the fertility of these soils. Quartzipsamments have a low volume of available water to plants (0.006 to 0.038 m3 m−3) and have a potential risk of leaching and aquifer contamination. The use of these soils demands the adoption of conservation practices.

Summary: Kangaroos (Macropus spp., Osphranter spp.) are the most ubiquitous free‐ranging herbivores in Australia. Much has been written on their impacts on plant community composition and how they interact with livestock, particularly in extensive rangelands. Little is known, however, about how kangaroos affect soil function and their relationship with healthy soils, nor the impact of peri‐urban populations of kangaroos where they might come into conflict with humans. To address this, we used exclosures to examine the impacts of low densities of kangaroos on the morphology of the soil surface in a peri‐urban environment on the outskirts of Sydney, Australia. We found that kangaroo grazing was associated with reduced herbaceous biomass and cover, and biocrust cover, and surfaces were generally more stable, had a greater cover and incorporation of litter and had greater plant species richness compared to inside the exclosures. There were no differences in indices of nutrient cycling nor stability. Overall, our study supports the notion that kangaroo grazing, at the current low densities experienced in this peri‐urban reserve, has had no significant deleterious effect on soil surface health, as measured by the morphology of the surface. We conclude that grazing at the current low levels (˜70 kangaroos km−2) is unlikely to have major long‐term negative effects on soil surface condition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On the basis of the conducted paleosol, updated data on the direction of climate changes in the second half of the Holocene in the territory of the Kuban–Azov Lowland were obtained. The Atlantic optimum of the Holocene was replaced at the beginning of the third millennium BC by a short period of aridization. The 27/26th–22/21st centuries BC were the period of climate humidization followed by a warm and dry period in the 22/21st–16th centuries BC. In the Early Iron Age, from the second half of the 2nd century BC to the beginning of the 2nd century AD, a sharp aridization of the climate was reconstructed, the peak of which occurred at the turn of the millennium. Paleosols of the second half of the third millennium BC are characterized by the high humus content, leaching of carbonates from the upper horizons, impregnation with carbonate pseudomycelium of the profile, the presence of calcareous veins, disintegration or absence of calcareous nodules, and zooturbation of the profile. These features attest to humid climatic conditions. At the turn of the era, with the increasing aridity of the climate, the chernozems acquired features of more southern subtypes, but there was no change in soil types and subtypes during this period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After an underground gas pipeline experiences damage in the form of microfissures, the pressurized gas has an erosion effect on the overlying soil, which will change the form of overlying soil and cause local displacement inside the soil. In serious cases, surface collapse accidents will occur. However, the current research on erosion caused by gas leakage remains lacking. The two-dimensional visualization of a buried pipeline leakage test device was used to perform gas leakage experiments at five gas pressures of 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, and 0.6 MPa to fill the current research gap. Three soil moisture content levels of 0%, 5%, and 10% were set in the experiments. The process and morphological characteristics of soil erosion induced by gas leakage were obtained via image monitoring and processing. Results showed that after the leakage of the buried pipeline, the overlying soil was eroded by pressurized gas, and the overlying soil presented five processes: porosity, pore formation, erosion loosening, erosion expansion, and cyclic erosion. Soil within the erosion range can be divided into three typical areas in accordance with morphological characteristics: (1) the hole area, (2) the main fissure expansion area, and (3) the fully developed microfissure area. When the gas pressure was increased from 0.2 to 0.6 MPa, the nucleation volume of the hole increased by 3–4.9 times. When the soil moisture content was increased from 0% to 10%, the hole nucleation volume decreased by 50%–66%. The erosion fissures showed obvious fractal characteristics. When the gas pressure was increased from 0.2 to 0.6 MPa, the average fractal dimension of erosion fissures increased by 7.4%. When the soil moisture content was increased from 0% to 10%, the mean fractal dimension of erosion fissures decreased by 16.4%. That is, the formation and distribution complexity of erosion fissures increased with high gas pressure and low soil moisture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On the dried-out surface of the Aral Sea, peculiar soil-formation processes take place. First, littoral soils whose development proceeds according to the zonal desert type. The general pattern is weak development of soil-forming processes on the background of strong initial salinity and carbonation. As a result of conducted field researches the basic types of soils and their morphological, chemical properties, content of heavy metals (gross and mobile) and specific features of salinization of soils of north-eastern Aral region are determined. The following soil types have been identified: typical solonchak, takyr-like and takyr solonchak, meadow solonchak, seaside solonchak, desert sand, brown desert non-saline soils. A comparative assessment of soil changes in the Eastern Aral Sea region as a result of the Aral Sea desiccation has been carried out. The leading factor of soil cover formation and development on the exposed seabed surfaces is the desert climate, which determines the development of salinization process after the sea receded, followed by rapid aridization of the area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Purpose: Complex phenomena of the precipitation and accumulation of calcium carbonate in urban soils and sediments have been studied. They are linked to the interactions between the lithosphere, the biosphere, and the atmosphere. Calcium and its compounds are among the main elements determining soil's morphological, physical, and chemical characteristics. This study was aimed at summarizing information about calcium carbonate concentrations in soils and finding evidence for the formation of carbonate micronodules by pedogenetic processes in Urbic Technosols under automorphic conditions. Materials and methods: Moscow is located within the southern taiga belt, with a humid temperate climate and a percolative water regime. The city's technogenic deposits contain significant amounts of carbonates due to inclusions of construction waste and additions of airborne dust. Contemporary humus-accumulative horizons of Urbic Technosols were found to contain carbonate accumulations (rounded or isomorphic nodules). Samples from such horizons were studied using a polarizing microscope (analysis of thin sections) and a scanning electron microscope with an energy-dispersive X-ray analyzer (element mapping to detect carbonate accumulations). Laboratory analyses of main chemical and physical soil properties were performed. Results and discussion: The analyzed samples contained both primary (i.e., inherited from parent materials) and secondary (i.e., newly formed in soils) calcium carbonates in various forms. Inclusions of solidified mortar (carbonate building solutions) contained dolomite. Although the studied carbonates underwent recrystallization processes, they remained in soils for a long time. Fibrous Mg silicate films deposited at the surface of recrystallization areas were observed. The formation of carbonate micronodules at depths of 15–40 cm in slightly and moderately calcareous humus horizons was investigated. Newly formed calcite was distinguished by a homogeneous composition, a microsparitic size of crystals, and a compact packing within the groundmass. Newly formed calcite was observed within microzones that were free from carbonate inclusions with dissolution features. Conclusions: The dissolution of primary carbonates in soils under humid climate conditions triggers pedogenetic processes of the carbonate heritage redistribution and the mineral matrix transformation. Recrystallized carbonates are the main forms of secondary carbonate accumulations in automorphic Technosols. The presence of compact carbonate nodules composed of microsparitic calcite within the bulk of silicate material may be indicative of carbonate neoformation as a result of interactions between the dissolved CO2 from root respiration and the soil absorbing complex saturated by Ca from soil solution. This is confirmed by a number of studies on the carbonate isotopic composition in urban soils. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cassava is easily cultivated and very tolerant of various soil conditions. It can be planted almost anywhere, in various types of soil, even in marginal soil where other food crops are difficult to grow properly. However, imposing higher productivity for two decades clearly reduced the quality of the soil. The aim of this study is to determine the influence of long-term cassava planting (> 20 years) on the morphology and properties of the soil, compared to mixed gardens which were rarely tilled, at 14 test sites in 10 locations in Lampung, South Sumatra, Indonesia. Cassava cultivation over a period of more than 20 years was seen to make the soil color brighter in both layers of soil which, in turn, affected the other soil properties. Cassava cultivation for more than 20 years caused the surface horizons at half of the test sites to change from crumbs to angular blocky and granular. The physical properties of the soil that was cultivated with cassava plantations for more than 20 years did not differ significantly from those of the mixed garden soil which was rarely tilled. However, a tendency was seen for the water available pores (WAPs) to decline. Cassava cultivation for more than 20 years greatly reduced the soil organic carbon (at a critical value of 0.01) and significantly reduced the soil pH, soil-CEC, and exchangeable bases (at a critical value of 0.1). However, the long-term cultivation of cassava did not affect the base saturation, although there was a change in the number of exchangeable bases and the CEC of the soil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the results of a study of soil cover in the Mari Chodra national park in the southeastern part of the Republic of Mari El. Magnetic properties of soddy-medium-podzolic sandy loam soils and soddy-podzolic loam soils are studied. Samples are taken along the shoreline of the karst Yalchik Lake and up the slope from the lake. Based on the results of magnetic susceptibility measurements, it is shown that the studied soil profiles are characterized by both the accumulative and eluvial–illuvial distribution of mineral components, depending on the conditions of soil formation and recreational activity of the given territory. It is shown that the increase in magnetic susceptibility in the organogenic horizons of soddy-medium-podzolic and soddy-podzolic soils is due to the contribution of a ferrimagnetic component. Differential thermomagnetic analysis and decomposition of coercive spectra into components revealed that the main carriers of the magnetization of the soils are fine-grained magnetite and hematite that have a pedogenic origin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In highly variable water regimes of semi-arid savannahs, water is the key driving force for biotic and abiotic processes. Understanding and measuring components of the hydrological cycle at landscape scale is however difficult because of the spatiotemporal variation of these processes. Hydropedology is a new interdisciplinary research field aiming to use soil information to conceptualise hydrological processes at different scales. In this study, a hydropedological approach was used to identify key hydrological flowpaths on a granitic catena in the Stevenson–Hamilton Supersite in the Kruger National Park. Soils from 49 plots, spaced 10 m apart along a catena, were classified, and their morphology was interpreted in relation to the dominant hydrological response. Soil samples were taken at 10-cm-depth intervals for chemical and physical analysis to assess the relationship between their expected hydrological behaviour and physiochemical properties. The hydropedological survey indicated that the crest is dominated by freely drained recharge soils where infiltration and vertical drainage are dominant. On the midslope, the underlying bedrock has restricted permeability; this promotes lateral flow at the soil/bedrock interface. On the upper footslope, high clay content soils (sodic) restricts further lateral drainage, resulting in return flow (seepage). Overland flow is dominant on the upper and lower footslope. The valley bottom is occupied by freely drained alluvial soils, which act as a recharge zone. The chemical and physical analyses of soil support the interpretations of the hydropedological interpretation of the soil morphology. Conservation implications: Understanding hydrological processes is important for sustainable water resource management, especially in the areas with highly variable water regimes. A hydropedological approach provides an efficient method to characterise dominant flowpaths at landscape scale. This aids the estimation of the hydrological sensitivity of the landscape to climate and land use changes.

The purpose of this study was to observe changes in soil morphology after mining for the brick industry. The study was carried out by observing four soil profiles. i.e. (1) soils that have never been mined (control); (2) soils that have been mined and left more than 10 years, (3) soils that have been mined and left for ± 5 years, and (4) soils that have been mined and left between 1-3 years. The method used in this study was the observation of a complete profile (cross-section of soil) which aimed to collect primary data directly through field observations and the description of individual soil horizons. The implementation of this research consisted of three stages, i.e. soil survey, soil profile description, and collection of soil samples from soils that have never been mined and that have been mined for years. Results of this study showed changes in soil morphology after the soils were mined for years, i.e. yellowish-brown colour, granular structure, loose consistency, no rooting zone, and abrupt horizons. The Inceptisol soils that have been mined for brick making materials experienced changes of morphology and soil properties. Further studies on land rehabilitation technique need to be carried out for consideration in restoring post-mining lands.

In this article, we discuss the contribution of capillary wetting and multiple freezing and thawing to the formation and evolution of vesicular micro– and mesoporosity in an aggregate of 3 mm in diameter from the eluvial horizon of soddy–podzolic soil (Albic Glossic Retisol (Loamic, Cutanic)). The main visible changes occur during capillary wetting and the first four cycles of freezing and thawing. Capillary wetting of the air-dry aggregate initiates the formation of vesicular micropores in the soil mass. The first freezing fixates the newly formed vesicles and contributes to the development of microschlieren in the aggregate. The first thawing causes the isolation and growth of individual vesicular pores. In the subsequent three freeze–thaw cycles, freezing fixates the vesicular pore space pattern, whereas thawing promotes the coalescence of small vesicular pores into larger vesicular pores. During the fifth and next cycles, many large vesicular pores leave the deformed aggregates aggregate, so that horizontally oriented cryogenic microschlieren tend to predominate in the frozen aggregate after 10–20 freeze–thaw cycles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In highly variable water regimes of semi-arid savannahs, water is the key driving force for biotic and abiotic processes. Understanding and measuring components of the hydrological cycle at landscape scale is however difficult because of the spatiotemporal variation of these processes. Hydropedology is a new interdisciplinary research field aiming to use soil information to conceptualise hydrological processes at different scales. In this study, a hydropedological approach was used to identify key hydrological flowpaths on a granitic catena in the Stevenson–Hamilton Supersite in the Kruger National Park. Soils from 49 plots, spaced 10 m apart along a catena, were classified, and their morphology was interpreted in relation to the dominant hydrological response. Soil samples were taken at 10-cm-depth intervals for chemical and physical analysis to assess the relationship between their expected hydrological behaviour and physiochemical properties. The hydropedological survey indicated that the crest is dominated by freely drained recharge soils where infiltration and vertical drainage are dominant. On the midslope, the underlying bedrock has restricted permeability; this promotes lateral flow at the soil/bedrock interface. On the upper footslope, high clay content soils (sodic) restricts further lateral drainage, resulting in return flow (seepage). Overland flow is dominant on the upper and lower footslope. The valley bottom is occupied by freely drained alluvial soils, which act as a recharge zone. The chemical and physical analyses of soil support the interpretations of the hydropedological interpretation of the soil morphology. Conservation implications: Understanding hydrological processes is important for sustainable water resource management, especially in the areas with highly variable water regimes. A hydropedological approach provides an efficient method to characterise dominant flowpaths at landscape scale. This aids the estimation of the hydrological sensitivity of the landscape to climate and land use changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil horizons reflect soil processes and convey information about past and present soil conditions. The identification and delineation of soil horizons are affected by lateral and vertical variation in soil properties. Early studies focused on the variation of horizon thickness and the waviness of horizon boundaries, but did not consider within-horizon lateral and vertical variation. Here we review studies that investigated variation in the master horizons O, A, E, B, and C. We summarize what is known about soil horizon variation, quantify the variation in different horizons, and investigate whether the variation increases or decreases with depth. The variation within horizons differs among soils, and the magnitude of the variation varies for different soil properties. Variation within soil horizons or laterally within a few square meters may be considerable, and the within-horizon variation changes with depth. Horizon thickness does not seem to be related to the variation of soil chemical and physical properties within the horizon, i.e., thicker horizons do not necessarily have higher variation in their soil properties. Three case studies are presented: Spodosols and Histosols (Russia), Alfisol and Mollisol (USA), and Oxisol (Brazil). Factors that affect the within-horizon variations include landscape position, parent material, vegetation, fertilization, tillage, drainage, and time. The vertical distribution of soil properties can be quantified using soil depth functions. Digital soil morphometrics techniques can assist in the quantification of two-dimensional soil profile properties and variations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ridges and tussock-like microhighs of unknown genesis were discovered in the northern part of the Barguzin Depression within the area of Kuchiger hydrotherms along the periphery of mires and within slightly concave surfaces of the alluvial plain. The classical mechanism of the formation of tussocks in herbal mires is replaced by a diapiric heave under the pressure of ascending gas-hydrothermal fluids from seismically active deep faults. The morphology and some properties of the soils in the transitional area from the mire with active hydrothermal griffons (vents) of the Kuchiger Hot Springs to the alluvial plain. In this area, the microtopography of the surface is represented by the chains of microhighs against the background of a network of microvalleys. Empirical statistical cumulative distributions of the morphometric characteristics of this microtopography have been obtained. The studied microhighs form a genetic series of gas-hydrothermally turbated soils: from organic soils with minimum intrusions of sandy material along the periphery of the mire to predominantly mineral variants represented by the extruded upwards gley horizon of different oxidation degrees on the alluvial plain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

First data on the specific morphology and physicochemical properties of soils forming in the zone of active discharge of ascending solutions of deep thermal water of Kuchiger hot springs of the fluoride hydrosulfuric bicarbonate–sulfate–sodium type are presented. The soil cover was studied along the transect crossing the mire with active gas hydrothermal griffons, an island within the mire, and the adjacent margin of alluvial plain in the northwestern part of the Barguzin Depression near the village of Kuchiger, Kurumkan district of the Buryat Republic. The features of peat–mucky gley soils (Eutric Rheic Sapric Histosols (Fluvic, Sodic)) predominating within the mire are described. The profiles of weakly developed and alluvial soils (Eutric Sodic Gleyic Fluvisols (Epiloamic, Endoarenic, Humic)) forming under the impact of ascending gas hydrothermal fluids bear the features of turbation and impregnation with condensed organic matter in their mineral and organic horizons. These features are not included in the international and Russian soil classification systems. It is suggested that they should be diagnosed and indicated by symbols imp (various degrees of impregnation), int (intruded material), and IMP (black sandy–silty horizon strongly impregnated with condensed organic matter). The inclusion of these features into the list of diagnostic properties allows us to specify impregnated and hydrothermally turbated soil subtypes in the new Russian soil classification system. Hypotheses of the genesis of soils along the entire transect and the appearance of islands within the mire massif are suggested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Edaphic influence on plant distribution is essential to community ecology studies, and for vegetation management and restoration in grasslands-forest ecosystems. Pampa biome is a subtropical grassland with high floristic diversity and with an important role in food production in South America, including tree plantations where recent changes in land use soil has been questioned about the impacts on water consumption, soil degradation and potential biodiversity loss. We assessed the relationship of soil physical, chemical and morphological properties with forest and grassland species occurrence, to improve our understanding of soil and landscapes with grasslands-forest mosaics, and contribute to ecological restoration in the biome. Soil physical and chemical properties were determined in different toposequences localized in two forest farms in southern Brazil, both covered with grassland and native forest use. Natural fertility of the studied soils was highest in the lowlands, along with highest moisture and lowest toxic aluminum content. Soil saturated hydraulic conductivity was highest in the summit and backslope soils, influenced by coarser fractions in the granulometry. Soil bulk density, total porosity, microporosity, macroporosity, saturated hydraulic conductivity field capacity, permanent wilting point and available water content, influenced by sand, silt and clay contents, varied among soils and landscape and contributed to vegetation diversity. Some of the plant species occupied specific soils and landscapes. The greatest vegetation frequency was of grassland species (Poaceae and Asteraceae) in both study sites. Grassland-forest area has forest individuals in the middle of the grassland and riparian, while in grassland area the riparian vegetation is composed naturally by grassland. Forest fragments expanded in grassland-forest area during the 15 years prior to our study, but in the grassland area there were no changes in the phyto-physiognomy, demonstrating that the vegetation of grassland occurs naturally in the riparian environment. This study highlights that many of sites covered naturally by grassland, in the Pampa biome, should be protected from disruptive activities and/or recovered with species endemic to the ecosystem, without necessarily by forest enrichment as usually recommended for restoration activities. • Soil-vegetation-landscape relations are essential in ecological restoration. • Ordination diagrams demonstrated correlation among soil, relief and vegetation. • Forests occurrence depended on landscape, soil, and propagates proximity. • Forests occur in wet soils in footslope, and grassland in backslope and summit. • Grassland should not be enriched with forest in restoration plans in the Pampas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The largest unfragmented tract of the rich-in-species old-growth Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis)- broadleaved forests in the world is situated in the basin of the Bikin River. The history of these forests, including the fire history, is very important for understanding factors of dynamics of these forests and prognosis of their development under different climate change scenarios and land-use regimes. However, this history has not been studied in detail so far. Here we aim at reconstructing the local history of fires in the middle reaches of the Bikin River using dendrochronology and pedoanthracology (analysis of charcoal in the soil). We used treefall mounds to search for charcoal in soils; charcoal was selected from 34 treefall mounds, 14 charcoal samples were radiocarbon dated. The age of fire scars on trunks was determined using the increment borer method on 45 Pinus koraiensis individuals. We defined that the main factors responsible for charcoal transport to the mineral soils were past treefalls with uprooting and soil erosion. The most ancient soil charcoals date back to the Upper Neolithic, about 3450 cal BP. The remaining charcoal samples are mainly grouped into four clusters: about 2250, 1610, 1450 and 600 cal BP. The increase of fire frequency is in good agreement with the previous results of lithologic-facies, botanical, spore-pollen and other analyses of bog sediments in the floodplain of the Bikin River. The earliest fires in the study area, which can be associated with human impacts, refer to the end of the first millennium (the time of the Bohai Kingdom). Fire scars were found on cores sampled from 39 out of 45 Pinus koraiensis individuals. The oldest Pinus we dated was 278 years old. Based on the cores, a fire chronology was built, covering the period from 1773 to 1993. Fires were marked for 36 years, while 10 years of them coincided in 3 and more cores. The periods with the highest frequency of fires are from 1937 to 1948 and from 1958 to 1980. We further followed possible connections between the frequency of fires and human activities. We also compared the fire chronology, data on precipitation and the number of fires in the Sikhote-Alin State Nature Reserve located closely to the study area. As expected, fires often occurred in the years with low precipitation or in the years following them. Preservation of a high species diversity of plants, especially the woody ones, with a significant frequency of fires in the study area can be explained by a complex relief determining the local fire spread and the presence of fire refugia. Soil charcoal analysis showed the existence of fire events from 3500 to 600 years BP and tree fire scars analysis showed the intensive fire history of the studied forests during the last 200 years. For the first time, fire regimes were reconstructed for Korean pine-broadleaved forest located on the slopes in the middle reaches of the Bikin River.

Limestone materials in Wonosari formation produces karst landform through the karstification processes. The different type of karst landform can affect soil morphology and soil classification. This research was conducted in Gedangan District, Malang Regency, East Java Province, Indonesia. Soil morphology identified at 54 minipits to know the range of soil characteristics, continued with detailed survey on 6 typical pedons to detailed soil classification. Soil samples were taken at each horizon for analyses of soil physical and chemical properties. Soil morphology at study area has very dark brown (7.5YR2.5/2) to yellowish brown (10YR5/8) soil colours, silty clay loam to silty clay textures, subangular blocky, fine, weak to moderate structures, very friable to very firm, sticky to very sticky, slightly plastic to plastic consistencies. There are no rock fragments at hilly and valley karst and shallow soil depth in hilly than in valley karst. Soil classification differs at each sub landform, i.e. top hilly karst is classified as Lithic hapludolls, fine, mixed, isohyperthermic, hilly karst classified as Typic calciudolls, fine, calcareous, superactive, isohyperthermic, Typic hapludolls, fine, mixed, superactive, isohyperthermic, plateau karst classified as Inceptic haprendolls, skeletal-clay, mixed, superactive, isohyperthermic, valley karst classified as Eutric humudepts, fine, mixed, superactive, isohyperthermic, and Typic humudepts, fine, mixed, superactive, isohypertermic.