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The COVID-19 pandemic has exposed significant gaps in the coverage, comprehensiveness and adequacy of social protection systems worldwide. These gaps have jeopardized the health, incomes and jobs of billions of people. Closing these protection gaps, facilitating faster and inclusive socio-economic recovery and enhancing resilience against future shocks requires more investment in social protection. Yet, more investment alone is not sufficient; countries also need to invest better in universal social protection, that is, to ensure that investments in social protection contribute to building systems that are aligned with international social security standards, in particular the Social Protection Floors Recommendation, 2012 (No. 202), working in tandem with the Social Security (Minimum Standards) Convention, 1952 (No. 102). This working paper is intended for a broad audience and outlines how the guidance provided by Recommendation No. 202 contributes to building nationally owned social protection systems that comprehensively and adequately protect the population and leave no one behind, are financially sustainable and socially just and rely on sound management and good governance.

Large and persistent gaps in social protection coverage, comprehensiveness and adequacy are linked to many barriers, including high levels of informality, institutional fragmentation of the social protection system and significant financing gaps for social protection in a context of limited fiscal space. The latter have been further exacerbated by the impact of the COVID-19. Against this background, this paper discusses the magnitude and urgency of the challenge of filling social protection financing gaps and the options for achieving this. Options exist even in low-income countries, including by broadening the tax base; tackling tax evasion and building fair and progressive tax systems together with a sustainable macroeconomic framework; duly collecting social security contributions and tackling non-payment or the avoidance of social security contributions; reprioritizing and reallocating public expenditure; and eliminating corruption and illicit financial flows. National social protection systems should be primarily financed from domestic resources; however, for countries with limited domestic fiscal capacities or countries facing increased needs due to crises, natural disasters or climate change, international financial resources, in combination with technical assistance, could complement and support domestic resource mobilization for social protection. Furthermore, more dialogue and coherence need to be achieved between international financial and development institutions to avoid contradictory policy advice on the level and nature of investment in social protection. Finally, international cooperation, such as on tax matters or debt restructuring, is needed to create an environment that facilitates domestic resource mobilization.

Dissertation presented as a partial requirement for obtaining the Master’s degree in Information Management, with a specialization in Knowledge Management and Business Intelligence The new forms of work, as such as Crowdworking and Freelancer jobs, driven by the technologies advances and globalization are introducing more frequent career breaks as well as higher variations on the worker's income which are incompatible with the current old-age protection system in Portugal. Most of the studies performed in Portugal are around the sustainability of the pension scheme and focus mainly on the parametric changes. Only a few studies are reflecting a redesign pension scheme like the Notional Defined Contribution (NDC) implemented in Sweden, Italy and Poland. The objective of this study is to propose a new design of a pension model within the new context of the future of work. The paper analyzes the impact of the future of work on the current Portuguese DB pension model and other existent pension models by simulating pension entitlements based on different career breaks and pensionable salaries oscillations. The results of the study confirmed the inadequacy of the actual Portuguese DB pension model for non-standard workers, and a worker with multiple breaks on the service could have a significant loss on the retirement pension entitlement. The study also confirmed that other standalone design models as the Notional Defined Contribution, Cash Balance, Defined Contribution, and the Systems Points would provide the same inadequacy levels for non-standard workers. We concluded that Beveridge and Bismarck's plans complement each other, and an optimal model within the future of work would have to be based on both characteristics of a Beveridge and Bismarck models with the same level of importance. The study shows evidence that moving away from the existing DB pension model to a multi-model, a first sub-model like a DB plan not linked to the contributive career - a Pure Beveridge model - with the objective of “redistribution” and “poverty relief”, and a second sub-model like a Bismarck plan (DC or Cash Balance type) with the objective of “consumption smoothing” and “insurance” would improve the adequacy and fairness of the pension retirement for the non-standard workers. As novas formas de trabalho, como a prestação de serviços por aplicativo ou trabalho de freelancers, impulsionadas pelos avanços da tecnologia e pela globalização, vêm introduzindo interrupções de carreira mais frequentes, bem como maiores variações nos rendimentos do trabalhador, que são incompatíveis com o atual sistema de pensões público em Portugal. A maioria dos estudos realizados em Portugal, gira em torno da sustentabilidade do regime de pensões publico e incide principalmente nas alterações paramétricas. Apenas alguns estudos analisam o impacto de mudanças estruturais no atual modelo de pensões em Portugal, como o modelo de “Notional Defined Contribuiton” (NDC) implementado na Suécia, Itália e Polónia. O principal objetivo deste estudo, é propor um novo desenho de um modelo de pensões em Portugal dentro do novo contexto do futuro do trabalho. O estudo analisa o impacto do futuro do trabalho no atual modelo de português e noutros modelos existentes, simulando direitos de pensão de reforma baseado em diferentes cenários de interrupções contributivas e oscilações de salários, durante a carreira contributiva. Os resultados confirmam a inadequação do atual modelo português de pensões para as novas formas de trabalho, e um trabalhador com múltiplas interrupções contributivas pode ter uma perda significativa na sua pensão de reforma. O estudo também confirmou que outros modelos como a NDC, “Cash Balance”, Contribuição Definida e o Sistema de pontos têm os mesmos níveis de inadequação de que o modelo de pensões em Portugal relativamente às novas formas de trabalho. Concluímos que os planos do tipo “Beveridge” e “Bismarck” se complementam, e um modelo de pensões ótimo teria necessariamente ter ambas as características de um modelo de Beveridge e Bismarck com o mesmo grau de importância. A principal recomendação do estudo é a alteração do atual modelo de pensões de BD, para um múltiplo modelo, um primeiro submodelo de plano de BD, mas não vinculado à carreia contributiva, como um modelo Puro de Beveridge em que a principal objetivos é garantir um rendimento mínimo e a redistributividade de financiamento do sistema, complementado com um segundo modelo Bismarck (tipo DC ou Cash Balance) vinculado à carreira contributiva, e em que principal objetivo é suavizar impacto no rendimento perdido devido ao evento de reforma e proteger contra o risco de reforma. O estudo demonstra que adotando ambas características “Beveridgean” e “Bismarkian” iria permitir melhores níveis de adequação das pensões de reforma para as novas formas de trabalho.

В статье рассматривается вопрос о необходимости обеспечения социально справедливого перехода к более инклюзивному, справедливому, стабильному и устойчивому развитию и представляет аналитические выкладки относительно стратегий и мер, которые необходимо принять в этой связи. В статье указывается на необходимость дальнейшего анализа влияния процессов цифровизации на устойчивость общества в целом, а также угрозы негативного воздействия пандемии новой коронавирусной инфекции COVID-19 на мировые системы социального обеспечения в целом. Автором подчеркивается важность взаимодействия государств на международно-правовом уровне, включающем механизмы сотрудничества в рамках ООН, Международной Организации Труда, Международной Ассоциации Социального обеспечения., The article examines the need to ensure a socially just transition to a more inclusive, equitable, stable, and sustainable development and provides analytical data on the strategies and measures that need to be applied. The article points out the need to further analyze the impact of digitalization on the sustainability of society as a whole as well as the threat of the negative impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the world's social security systems. The author of the article emphasizes the importance of interaction between states at the international legal level, including the cooperation mechanisms within the UN, the International Labor Organization, and the International Social Security Association., Международный научно-исследовательский журнал, Выпуск 3 (105) 2021, Pages 169-171

The COVID-19 pandemic has caused massive disruptions to the global economy and forced policymakers to respond to the newly created challenges. Many policy institutions have therefore had to rethink their established approaches and their usual policy responses. @This paper explores whether there has been a change in International Monetary Fund (IMF) policy advice and conditions in its loan programmes and Article IV surveillance by examining the 148 country reports for IMF programmes in 2020, in the context of significant shifts in its global macroeconomic policy framework during the COVID-19 pandemic. It documents the policy recommendations made in these reports and finds that the IMF has supported increased expenditure on health care and cash transfer programmes, often on a temporary basis, even when it meant higher fiscal deficit and public debt. However, it also finds that the IMF has supported fiscal consolidation and reduction of public debt even more frequently, in 129 of the 148 reports examined. This seems to corroborate the findings of a number of recent studies. Given the pronounced gaps in social protection coverage, comprehensiveness and adequacy across all countries, it is essential that the measures taken to cope with the emergency do not remain a mere stopgap response, but progressively lead to the establishment or strengthening of rights-based national social protection systems, including floors. To do so, countries can and should pursue diverse financing options that are equitable in order to mobilize the financial resources needed for social investments, including investments in social protection systems and quality public services.

Çeşitli risklerden dolayı bireyin gelirinde geçici veya sürekli kesilme meydana geldiğinde bu açığı karşılayan sisteme sosyal güvenlik sistemi denilmektedir. Bu sistemin temel amacı ise, bireyi hastalık, iş kazası sonucu malul olma, yaşlılık gibi durumlara karşı korumaktır. Sosyal güvenlik, bireylerin geleceğini güvence altına almak ve yaşam standartlarını arttırmada önemli bir role sahipken aynı zamanda istihdamın arttırılmasında da önemli bir etkendir. Gelişmeyi hedefleyen her ülke, sosyal güvenlik sistemine kayıtlı aktif olarak çalışan sigortalı sayısını arttırmayı amaçlamaktadır. Bunun sonucunda ise sosyal güvenlik sisteminin en önemli gelir kaynağı olan prim gelirlerinin arttırılması sağlanacaktır. Sosyal güvenlik sisteminin sürdürülebilirliği açısından aktif – pasif dengesi sistemin karşılaştığı ve karşılaşacağı en büyük problemlerden biri olmaktadır. Bu çalışmada sosyal güvenlik sistemine kayıtlı aktif sigortalı, pasif sigortalı ve bunların bakmakla yükümlü oldukları kişiler dahil olmak üzere 1972-2018 yılları arasındaki verileri analiz edilmiştir. Bu verilere dayanarak istatistiksel analiz yöntemlerinden biri olan zaman serileri analizi yöntemi Eviews programı aracılığıyla gelecek on beş yıl için tahminler yapılmıştır. Elde edilen sonuçlara göre, gelecek on beş yılın sosyal güvenlik aktif pasif oranı değerlendirilmiştir. Ayrıca istihdam, prim tahsilat oranı, kayıt dışı istihdam gibi etkenlerin aktif – pasif oranına olan etkileri incelenerek aktüeryal denge analiz edilmiştir. Elde edilen sonuçlara göre sosyal güvenlik sisteminin aktüeryal dengesindeki problemler irdelenip, asıl meselelerin çözümü göz önünde bulundurulmaya çalışılmıştır. When a temporary or permanent cut in the income of an individual occurs due to various risks, the system that compensates this deficit is called the social security system. The main purpose of this system is to protect the individual against the situations such as illnesses, work disability and old age. While social security plays an important role in securing the future of individuals and increasing living standards, it is also an important factor in increasing employment. Each country aiming to improve targets to increase the number of active insured persons registered in the social security system. As a result, the premium income, which is the most important source of income of the social security system, will be increased. In terms of sustainability of the social security system, the asset - liability balance is one of the biggest problems faced and will be faced by the system.In this study, data between 1972-2018 including active insured, passive insured and their dependents registered in social security system were analyzed. Based on these data, time series analysis method, which is one of the statistical analysis methods, is estimated through the Eviews program for the next fifteen years. According to the results, the ratio of social security assets and liabilities for the next fifteen years was evaluated. In addition, actuarial balance was analyzed by examining the effects of factors such as employment, premium collection rate and informal employment on asset - liability ratio. According to the results, the problems in the actuarial balance of the social security system were examined and the solution of the real issues was tried to be considered. 120

Bireysel Emeklilik Sistemi, 2003 yılında faaliyete geçmiş ve katılımcılarına emeklilik dönemlerinde ek bir gelir sağlamayı vadetmektedir. 2017 yılında uygulamaya başlayan ve bireysel emekliliğe katılımı artırmayı amaçlayan Otomatik Katılım Sistemi ile 45 yaşın altında olup bir kişi veya kuruma bağlı çalışan kişileri kapsamaktadır. Her iki uygulama da isteğe bağlı olup, katılımcılara %25 devlet desteği sağlanmaktadır.Erzurum ili, tarihi geçmişi ve coğrafi konumu nedeniyle tarihin çeşitli dönemlerinde olduğu gibi bugün de Anadolu'nun gözde şehirlerinden biridir. Bu nedenle yaşadığımız şehre vefa borcunu ödemek maksadıyla çalışmanın merkezi Erzurum olarak seçilmiştir. Erzurum'da yaşayan ve 25-54 yaş aralığında bulunan kişileri kapsayan çalışma, Bireysel Emeklilik Sistemine katılım durumunu etkileyen faktörleri incelemektedir. Bu bağlamda yapılan çalışmada Erzurum ilinde yaşayan ve belirtilen yaş aralığında olan kişilerin %81,46'sı sistemden haberdardır. Bu kişiler içerisinde sisteme katılım oranı %42,95 iken, katılıp ayrılanların oranı %26,6 ve sisteme hiç katılmayanların oranı %30,45'tir.Anahtar Kelimeler: Sosyal Güvenlik Sistemi, Bireysel Emeklilik Sistemi, Devlet Desteği, Otomatik Katılım Sistemi, Sigorta, Erzurum The Individual Pension System was launched in 2003 and offers its participants an additional income during retirement. With the Automatic Participation System, which started to be implemented in 2017 and aims to increase participation in individual pension, it covers people who are under 45 and working under a person or institution. Both applications are optional and 25% government support is provided to the participants.Erzurum, due to its historical background and geographical location, is one of the favorite cities of Anatolia today as it is in various periods of history. For this reason, the center of the study was selected as Erzurum to pay the loyalty to the city we live in. The study, which covers people aged between 25 and 54 who are living in Erzurum, examines the factors affecting the status of participation in the Private Pension System. In this study, 81.46% of the people living in the province of Erzurum and mentioned in the mentioned age range are aware of the system. Among those, the rate of participation in the system is 42,95%, while the rate of those who leave is 26,6% and the rate of those who do not participate in the system is 30,45%.Key Words: Social Security System, Individual Pension System, Government Support, Automatic Participation System, Insurance, Erzurum 213

Bireysel emeklilik sistemi geleneksel sosyal güvenlik sistemlerinin tamamlayıcısı olmakla beraber, bireyler açısından tasarruf ve yatırım davranışlarını şekillendirici bir fonksiyon üstlenmektedir. Bireysel emeklilik fonlarında portföy dağılımları ise, katılımcıların getiri beklentileri ve riske karşı tutumları ile şekillenmektedir. Bu noktada kişilerin ne kadar getiri için ne kadar risk üstlenebileceği kilit önem taşımaktadır. Üstlenilen risk düzeyi ve dolayısıyla elde edilebilecek getiri miktarı kişilerinin risk alma istekliliği olarak tanımlanabilecek risk toleransı kavramıyla doğrudan ilişki içerisindedir. Söz konusu çalışmanın amacı ise, kişilerin risk toleranslarını etkileyen kişisel unsurların belirlenmesidir. Geçmiş çalışmalarda yatırımcıların risk toleransı ölçümleri yatırımcıların sahip oldukları portföy yapıları incelenerek portföydeki riskli varlıkların toplam varlıklara oranı alınarak risk toleransları belirlenmiş veya risk kavramını nasıl anlamlandırdıkları saptanarak riske karşı yaklaşımları ve risk alma isteklilikleri varsayımsal senaryolardan müteşekkil anketlerle çözümlenmeye çalışılmış, yatırımcıların risk toleransları bu iki temel yöntemle belirlenmiştir. Bu çalışmada ise, Mersin Üniversitesinde akademik ve idari personel olarak görev yapan 313 kişiye anket uygulanmış, Grable'in 1999 yılında geliştirdiği risk toleransı belirleme anketinin 13 soruluk sadeleştirilmiş formatından faydalanılmıştır. Elde edilen risk toleransı skorları ise, katılımcıların demografik verileriyle ilişkilendirilmiş, iki parametre arasında anlamlı ilişkiler olup olmadığı araştırılırken literatürde benzer birçok çalışmada da uygulandığı üzere Multinominal Lojistik Regresyon Analizinden faydalanılmıştır. Katılımcıların cinsiyeti ve katılımcının eşinin ev içi gelire katkı yapması, Bireysel Emeklilik Sistemine Otomatik katılım sistemiyle dahil olması, birden fazla bireysel emeklilik sözleşmesi sahibi olması, katılımcıların oturdukları meskenin aitlik durumu, hane içinde bakımıyla sorumlu olunan çocuk sayısı ve çocuk sahibi olma/olmama durumu risk toleransına etkisi gözlemlenen faktörlerdir. Çalışma doğrultusunda, kişinin medeni durumu, eğitim düzeyi, yaşı, bireysel emeklilik sistemi katılımcısı olup olmaması, sistemde geçirdiği yıl sayısı, bireysel emeklilik sistemine gönüllü katılım durumu, otomatik katılım sistemiyle dahil olunduktan sonra cayma hakkı kullanımı bireylerin risk toleransı üzerinde anlamlı etkileri bulgulanamamış faktörlerdir. Individual Pension System is an important function as shaping saving and investment behaviours for invidiuals in addition to being supplementary of traditional social security systems. The portfolio structures in individual pension system depends on participant's return expectations and attitudes towards risk. At that point it's important to know how much risk indivuduals would take for the rate of return they want. The risk level indivudials would take on and thereby the rate of return they would obtain is directly in relationship with the financial risk tolerance which can be simply defined as the `willingness and bearing to take financial risks of a person`. The aim of present study is to determine personel factors and demographic variables effecting indivuduals' financial risk tolerances. In previous studies, rate of risky assets in investors' portfolios was considered or was conducted a questionnarie composed of some hypothetical scenarios to comprehend investors' attiudes towards risk and tendencies to take risk. In this study, a simplified form of Grable's 13 questioned risk tolerance survey which has developed in 1999, was conducted on 313 Mersin University staff worked as administrative and academic personnel. To examine the significant relationship between total financial risk score results and demographic factors or other indivudual determinants, multinominal logistic regression was used for as it used in similar previous studies in literature. Analysing the relationship between these two parameters, participants' gender, home ownership, having more than one individual pension contract and having children or a financially dependant person was found to be related to indivudual's risk tolerance. It was found that individuals' risk tolerance is higher if spouse works and makes an economic contribution for household income. In accordance with this study, a person's education, marital status, age, to be a participant in private pension system, the number of year staying in individual pension system, voluntary participation in pension system or using right of withdrawal is irrelevant to indivuals' financial risk tolerance scores. 155

Sosyal güvenlik sisteminin tamamlayıcısı olan bireysel emeklilik sistemi, son yıllarda dünyada birçok gelişmiş ve gelişmekte olan ülkelerde uygulanmaya başlanmıştır. Sistem sosyal güvenlik sorunlarının giderilmesi amacıyla doğmuş olsa da uygulamada ülke ekonomilerini makro düzeyde etkilediği tespit edilmiştir. Bu çalışmanın amacı, temel ekonomik göstergeler ile bireysel emeklilik sistemi verileri arasında anlamlı bir ilişki olup olmadığını araştırmaktır. Bu doğrultuda, bireysel emeklilik sistemi değişkenlerinden sözleşme sayısı ve toplam yatırım tutarı, makroekonomik değişkenlerden ise büyüme, döviz kuru, işsizlik, cari açık, mevduat faizi ve yatırım verileri arasındaki ilişki incelenmiştir. Bu çalışmada, Türkiye'de 2004Q1-2016Q4 dönemine ilişkin üçer aylık verilerin kullanıldığı temel makroekonomik değişkenler ile bireysel emeklilik sistemi değişkenleri arasındaki uzun dönemli ilişkinin varlığı ARDL sınır testi yaklaşımı ile analiz edilmiştir. Elde edilen sonuçlar Türkiye'de makroekonomik değişkenler ile bireysel emeklilik sistemi değişkenleri arasında eşbütünleşmenin varlığına dair bulgular ortaya koymaktadır. Uzun dönemde sözleşme sayısı ile mevduat faizi arasında pozitif bir ilişki olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Diğer yandan yapılan kısa dönem var analizi sonuçlarına göre tüm değişkenler için, Granger nedensellik testinde yatırımdan cari açığa, yatırımdan işsizliğe, büyümeden cari açığa ve büyümeden işssizliğe tek yönlü nedensellik olduğu bulgusuna ulaşılmıştır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Sosyal Güvenlik, Bireysel Emeklilik, ARDL, Var Analizi, The individual pension system, which is a supplement to the social security system, has been implemented in many developed and developing countries in the world in recent years. Although the system was born for the purpose of eliminating social security problems, it has been determined that the economy affects the national economies at macro level. The aim of this study is to investigate whether there is a significant relationship between basic economic indicators and individual pension system data. In this context, the relationship between the number of contracts and total investment amout of the individual pension system variables and the growth, exchange rate, unemployment, current account deficit, deposit interest and investment data from macroeconomic variables were examined. In this study, the existence of long-term connection between variables of individual pension system and macroeconomic variables that are used quarterly data for the period of 2004Q1-2016Q4 in Turkey was analyzed with the approach of ARDL boundary test. The results obtained reveals the existence of cointegration mania between macroeconomic variables and variables of individual pension system in Turkey. In the long-term, a positive relationship was found between the number of contracts and deposit rates. On the other hand, according to the results of the short-term Var analysis, in the Granger causality test, it was found that there was a one-way causality from investment to current account deficit, from investment to unemployment, from growth to current account deficit and from growth to unemployment. Key Words: Social Security, Individual Pension, ARDL, Var Analysis

2000'lerin başından itibaren Türkiye'nin refah rejiminde ve sağlık hizmeti politikalarında önemli bir değişim başlamıştır. 2003 yılında ilan edilen Sağlıkta Dönüşüm Programı'nın rehberliğinde, sağlık hizmetlerine erişim artmış, hizmetlerde kapsam genişlemiş ve kişilerin istihdamdaki konumuna dayanan statü eşitsizlikler ortadan kaldırılmıştır. Çalışmanın amacı, Dünya Bankası'nın refah yönetişimi politikalarının bir ayağı olarak düşünülebilecek küresel sağlık reformlarının, Türkiye'deki yansıması olan SDP'nin, sağlık sistemine etkisini incelemek ve yaşanan değişimin toplumsal yansımalarını ortaya koymaktır. Çalışma, Ardahan'da gerçekleştirilen niteliksel bir saha araştırmasına dayanmaktadır. Bu saha araştırması kapsamında, farklı gelir gruplarından sağlık hizmeti kullanıcılarıyla, yarı yapılandırılmış derinlemesine görüşmeler ve odak grup görüşmeleri gerçekleştirilmiştir ve elde edilen bulgular sağlık sisteminin değerlendirilmesinde kullanılmıştır. Çalışmanın konusu, dönüşen refah sistemi ve sağlık politikaları olduğundan, öncelikle sosyal politika, sosyal güvenlik ve refah devleti gibi kavramlar incelenmiş; ardından refah rejimi tipleri ve sağlık sistemlerinin sınıflandırılması üzeride durulmuştur. Ayrıca, küresel gelişmelerin ulusal sosyal politikalara etkisini göz önünde bulundurularak, Keynesyen sosyal refah devleti ve onu takip eden neoliberal dönemde, sağlık hizmet alanının nasıl şekillendiği değerlendirilmiştir. Takip eden bölümde Cumhuriyet tarihi boyunca sağlık hizmet alanında yaşanan gelişmeler ve bu gelişmeleri belirleyen politika tercihleri üzerinde durularak tarihsel bir arka plan kurulduktan sonra; saha çalışmasından elde edilen bulgulara dayalı sağlık sistemi değerlendirmesine geçilmiştir.Yapılan saha çalışması ile, ülkenin ekonomik ve idare merkezlerine uzak bir ilde, sağlık hizmetlerinde dönüşüm sonrasında yaşanan olumlu gelişmeler ve ortaya çıkan yeni eşitsizliklerle ilgili bulgulara ulaşılmıştır. Çalışmanın sonucunda, SDP ile statülere dayalı eşitsizliklerin ortadan kalktığı fakat gelire dayalı eşitsizliklerin oluştuğuna dair düşüncelerin doğrulandığı gözlenmiştir. Türkiye'de nitelikli sağlık hizmetine ulaşmanın sahip olunan gelirin bir fonksiyonu haline geldiği görülmüştür. Since the beginning of 2000s, there have been significant changes in Turkey's welfare regime and policies of health services. Following the Health Transformation Program (SDP) launched in 2003, access to health services increased, the scope of services expanded and inequalities based on people's employment status were eliminated. The purpose of this study is to examine the impact of the SDP, which can be considered as a reflection of global health reforms in Turkey as a pillar of World Bank's welfare governance policies, to the health system and to reveal the social reflections of the transformation. The study is based on the qualitative field research conducted in Ardahan. Within the extent of field research, semi-structered, in-depth interviews and focused group interviews were held with the users of health services belonging to different income groups. Considering the transforming welfare system and the health policies as the main theme of the study, the subjects such as social policy, social security and welfare state are discussed as an introduction. Later, the types of welfare regime and the classification of health systems are explained. Moreover, how the area of health services was shaped during the Keynesian welfare state period followed by the neoliberal era was presented, considering the impact of the global policies on national social programmes. Afterwards, as an historical background, the developments in the field of health services throughout the Republican history and the policy choices that determine these developments are emphasised. Last but not the least, as an outcome of the field work, it was observed that, after the transformation in health services, positive developments and new inequalities were created in such a province far away from the economic and administrative center of the country. In conclusion, along with the SDP, it was observed that the inequalities based on status were eliminated, yet that new inequalities based on the income were created. In this sense, it was understood that, accession to a decent health service in Turkey become pretty much dependent on the level of income of the citizens. 129

MCom (Economics), North-West University, Vanderbijlpark Campus, 2019 In the ever-changing global market environment, it is crucial for national governments to establish an enabling social economic atmosphere for the upliftment of individuals’ quality of life and well-being. International institutions state that social security has become one of the most important forms of assistance provided by a national government, which is now seen as an overall human right. Economic theory expresses a viewpoint of justice and a theoretical agenda for instituting radical organisations designed to maintain social justice and individual independence. Factors constituting the social security system include the number of social security recipients, the amount spent on social security, the economic environment, the level of human development, the amount of individuals without a job, the amount of individuals within a household, distribution of income and the number of individuals in income poverty. Empirical declarations have presented mixed findings on the subject matter and thus no single empirical consensus has been presented. Meanwhile, international institutions combined with the economic theory argue that potential effects of the aforementioned social factors on an economy’s social security patterns vary according to the orientation of the economy’s condition of need. This study examined the South African social security system, stated in the Republic of South Africa Constitution, Section 27 (1c) as, “every individual has the right to have access to social security, including if they are unable to support themselves and their households, proper social assistance” and requires legislative measures which should be employed by the national government to create awareness of this right in order to alleviate poverty and income inequality as well as to uplift individuals standard of living, included in Section 27 (2). In order to investigate the aforementioned Constitutional statements, the study employed both a descriptive and an econometric analysis on the South African social security system. Throughout the descriptive section, trends and graphs are used to analyse the different social security systems found across the globe and it culminates with an in-depth analysis of the different social security assistance types in South Africa. The econometric analysis ascertains the long-run and short-run relationship between three econometric models, namely the number of individuals in poverty, income inequality (as measured by the GINI coefficient) and human development (as measured by the Human Development Index (HDI)), with the number of social security recipients, the amount spent on social security, the number of individuals without a job, economic activity and the number of individuals within a household from 1996 to 2017. The study also establishes a causal direction between the aforementioned factors. The models employed under the econometric section include the correlation matrix, ARDL bounds test to co-integration and the Toda-Yamamoto Granger causality test. The study made use of a quantitative research methodology and includes time series macro-economic variables from 1996 to 2017. The correlation matrix found that the correlation between poverty and the aforementioned independent variables, indicates that two (social security recipients and the number of individuals within a household) out of the five variables have a positive relationship with the alleviation of poverty; however, these positive relationships are not significant at any significance level. Three (amount spent on social security, economic activity, number of individuals without a job) out of the five variables have a negative relationship with poverty and only social security expenditure and economic activity has a significant impact on poverty at 1 percent significance level. On the other hand, the correlation matrix for human development found that four (number of social security recipients, amount spent on social security, economic activity, unemployment) out of the five independent variables have a positive relationship with HDI and these positive relationships are all statistically significant at 1 and 5 percent significance level, except for the number of social security recipients (not significant) and one (number of individuals within a household) of the five independent variables having a negative relationship with the improvement of HDI and is statistically significant at the 1 percent significance level. The correlation matrix for income inequality found that two (number of social security recipients and the number of individuals within a household) of the five sectors under the study have a positive relationship with income inequality. However, these positive relationships are only statistically significant for the number of social security recipients and three (amount spend on social security, the number of individuals without a job and economic activity) of the five variables have a negative relationship with income inequality where only the number of individuals without a job is not statistically significant. The long-run relationships were insignificant between the number of individuals in poverty, income inequality (GINI) and human development (HDI) with the number of individuals receiving social security benefits, total amount spent on social security, number of individuals within a household, number of individuals without a job and economic activity. The short-run Toda-Yamamoto Granger causality found a unidirectional causal relationship between human development and the number of individuals without a job. This means that human development Granger causes unemployment but not the other way around. There is also a causal relationship between HDI and all the independent variables combined, at 5 percent significance level. A unidirectional causality exists between the number of social security recipients and the number of individuals in poverty. This means that the total number of social grant recipients Granger causes poverty but not the other way around. There is also a causal relationship between the number of social security recipients and all the independent variables combined, at 5 percent significance level. A unidirectional causal relationship exists between the number of individuals in poverty and the number of individuals without a job. This means that poverty Granger causes unemployment but not the other way around. Furthermore, there is a causal relationship between the number of individuals in poverty and all the independent variables combined, at 1 percent significance level. A unidirectional causal relationship exists between the income inequality and the human development. This means that income inequality Granger causes HDI but not the other way around. Furthermore, there is evidence of a unidirectional relationship between income inequality and economic activity, indicating income inequality Granger causes GDP but not the other way around. Lastly, there is evidence of a unidirectional relationship between income inequality and the number of individuals within a household, indicating income inequality Granger causes household size but not the other way around. There is also a causal relationship between income inequality and all the independent variables combined, at 1 percent significance level. No causal relationship exists between the number of individuals within a household and all the independent variables combined. Whereas, there is evidence of a causal relationship between the amount spent on social security systems and all the independent variables combined, at 5 percent significance level. There is also evidence that a causal relationship exists between economic activity and all the independent variables combined, at 1 percent significance level, however, not individually. A unidirectional causality exists between the number individuals without a job and the amount spent on social security. This means that unemployment Granger causes social security expenditure but not the other way around. There is also a causal relationship between the number of individuals without a job and all the independent variables combined, at 1 percent significance level. Masters

Ülkemizde uygulanan sosyal güvenlik sisteminin gerek yapısı gerekse sorunları 1990'lı yılların sonlarına doğru tartışma konusu olmuş ve hala günümüzde yaygın bir şekilde eleştirilmektedir. Sosyal güvenlik sistemi SSK, Bağ-Kur ve Emekli Sandığı olmak üzere üç kurum tarafından yürütülmekteydi. Ancak sosyal güvenlik kuruluşlarında giderek artan açıkların yaşanması sebebiyle sisteme getirilen eleştirilerin daha da şiddetlenmesine neden olmaktaydı. Yaşanan açıklar sonunda ekonomik istikrarsızlıkların oluşması ve buna bağlı olarak yoksulluğun artması sistemin yetersizliğini ortaya koymaktaydı. Sosyal güvenlik sisteminde reform yönündeki çalışmaların hızlanmasını sağlamıştır. Sistemin etkinliğini artıracak olan reformun ayrım gözetmeksizin tüm vatandaşlarımıza eşit şartlarda ve kaliteli güvence sağlama olanağı yaratılmaya çalışılmıştır. Bundan hareketle çeşitli reform aşamalarından sonra, tek bir sosyal güvenlik kuruluşu öngörülerek bahsedilen üç kurumun tek çatı altında birleşmesi amacıyla 5502 sayılı Kanun yürürlüğe koyulmuştur. Bu çalışmada sosyal güvenlik sisteminin sorunları esas alınarak bu sorunlara çözüm getirmek hedefi ile uygulamaya konulan 5502 sayılı Kanunun günümüzdeki durumu değerlendirilmeye çalışılmıştır. The structure and problems of the social security system implemented in our country have been the subject of debate in the late 1990s and are widely criticized today too. Social security system was carried out by three institutions ; SSK, Bag-Kur and Emekli Sandigi . However, the growing deficits in the social security institutions caused the criticism to be exacerbated. As a result of the deficits , economic instabilities and consequently the increase of the poverty, revealed the inadequacy of the system. These reasons have accelerated the reform studies of the social security system. It was tried to create the opportunity of providing equal and high quality assurance to all citizens without any discrimination, which will increase the efficiency of the system. Thus, following the various stages of reform, Law No. 5502 was enacted in order to unite the three institutions under one roof by foreseeing a single social security institution. In this study, the current situation of Law No. 5502 which is implemented with the aim of solving these problems based on the problems of social security system has been tried to be evaluated. 108