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An insider threat is a threat that comes from people within the organization being attacked. It can be described as a function of the motivation, opportunity, and capability of the insider. Compared to managing the dimensions of opportunity and capability, assessing one's motivation in committing malicious acts poses more challenges to organizations because it usually involves a more obtrusive process of psychological examination. The existing body of research in psycholinguistics suggests that automated text analysis of electronic communications can be an alternative for predicting and detecting insider threat through unobtrusive behavior monitoring. However, a major challenge in employing this approach is that it is difficult to minimize the risk of missing any potential threat while maintaining an acceptable false alarm rate. To deal with the trade-off between the risk of missed catches and the false alarm rate, we propose a unified psycholinguistic framework that consolidates multiple text analyzers to carry out sentiment analysis, emotion analysis, and topic modeling on electronic communications for unobtrusive psychological assessment. The user scenarios presented in this paper demonstrated how the trade-off issue can be attenuated with different text analyzers working collaboratively to provide more comprehensive summaries of users' psychological states. Published version

Cultural holidays are culturally themed, public celebrations that are held collectively and regularly in the society. In four studies, we explored the effect of exposure to holidays from out-group cultures on intergroup social distance and investigated the role of salience of one’s nonmembership in the out-group (i.e., negational identity salience) as the cognitive mechanism. Study 1 showed that exposure to outgroup cultural holidays (i.e., Hari Raya Puasa for the Malay, Deepavali for the Indian) was associated with Singaporean Chinese’s increase in linguistic distance in social media updates on Twitter. Study 2 experimentally manipulated exposure to Hari Raya Puasa and found that such exposure caused a decreased self-report willingness for casual interactions with Malay members for Singaporean Chinese. Study 3 showed that such a distancing effect was caused by the exposure to the out-group holiday but not the mere exposure to the out-group. Study 4 further showed that exposure to celebratory activities related to Hari Raya Puasa drove the distancing effects, especially for participants who highly identified with the Chinese culture. Furthermore, negational identity salience mediated such interaction effect on willingness for close interactions with Malay members. Overall, these results demonstrate that exposure to out-group cultural holidays increases social distance from the out-group members in the context of majority groups exposing to cultural holidays of minority groups. The current research extends the understanding of social impacts of cultural holidays on intergroup relations, presents cultural holidays as important contexts for studying intergroup relations in the field, and highlights the critical role of negational identity salience in increasing intergroup social distance. Doctor of Philosophy (HSS)

Existing literature suggests that infants are able to represent a dominance relationship and hold different expectations towards the actions of dominant and subordinate individuals. However, it remains unknown whether infants’ expectations of moral principles such as fairness and care would be moderated by the social statuses of individuals. The present research investigates infants’ expectations related to the moral actions of an authority figure towards her subordinate and vice versa. In a series of eye-tracking experiments, we tested whether young infants at 18- to 33-month-old expect the authority figure to behave fairly (Experiment 1), that the authority figure should be helpful rather than harmful towards subordinates (Experiment 2), and that subordinates should be helpful instead of harmful towards authority figure (Experiment 3). Results reveal that infants expect authority figures and subordinates to be differentially guided by the principle of fairness and the principle of care. Specifically, infants expect that (a) an authority figure should be fair and altruistic, (b) an authority figure should help and not harm subordinate, (c) subordinate should not harm an authority figure, but neither are they expected to help an authority figure. Master of Arts

Singapore is a world leader in business facilitation (The World Bank, 2016) yet entrepreneurial intention and entrepreneurial activities rates are low (Singer, Amorós, & Arreola, 2015). Although much is known about “what makes an entrepreneur”, few studies have looked at what prevents individuals from pursuing an entrepreneurial career path. Understanding the barriers to entrepreneurship is important as the removal of the barriers can promote entrepreneurship (Venkataraman, 2004). Fear of failure (FoF) and kiasuism, literally translated as fear of losing out, were suggested by local officials to be the reasons for low entrepreneurial spirit among Singaporeans (Ho, Ang, Loh, & Ng, 1998; Koh, 2015; Low, 2006; Yu, 2015). This research is motivated by the lack of prior research on the roles of FoF and kiasuism in influencing entrepreneurship in Singapore. Three sets of studies were conducted. We attempt to address the limitations in the current available measures for FoF and kiasuism by developing and validating new measures for the two constructs. Next, we examine the influence of FoF and kiasuism on the intention to be an entrepreneur among Singaporean undergraduates. Theoretical and practical implications of this research are discussed. Doctor of Philosophy (HSS)

While there is evidence from the self-determination perspective for the mediation of basic psychological needs satisfaction in the materialism-well-being link, to date, no research has attempted to examine the relative contribution of the three needs to the mediating effect. Given that, the predictive value of psychological needs on well-being depends upon the match between the need and the life domain, the first two studies investigated the differential mediating role of all three needs in the negative relationship between materialism and well-being. In study 1, 231 adults self-reported their materialistic attitudes, basic needs satisfaction and well-being indicators and a multiple mediation model was tested. Results indicated that materialism diminishes well-being through lower satisfaction of the psychological need for autonomy only. In study 2 (82 undergraduates), experimentally activated materialistic thoughts and their effects on need satisfaction and well-being as compared to a neutral control condition was examined. Results showed that activated materialism, leads to lower satisfaction of the need for autonomy, which in turn produces higher negative affect. The findings point towards the importance of considering the specific role of the psychological need of autonomy in the materialism-well-being link. Further, majority of previous research examined the materialism-well-being link and antecedent factors that lead to the development of materialistic values separately. The current research aims to integrate causes and consequences of materialism in a single explanatory framework of self-determination theory. An important psychological antecedent of materialism documented in previous research is feelings of low self-worth/self-doubt. However, the exact nature of the domains from which such self-doubt (that breeds materialism) emanates, has remained unexplored. Self- determination theory posits that contingent self-esteem is domain specific, fragile, requires perpetual validation and is fundamentally different from true self-esteem that is contingent, but on intrinsic factors such as personal growth, authenticity and autonomy. The present study investigates contingent self-esteem in extrinsic domains such as appearance and competition as antecedents of materialism. It is shown that extrinsic and intrinsic forms of contingent self-esteem relate differently with materialism such that intrinsically contingent self-esteem is incompatible with materialistic attitudes. These core proposals were tested in three studies, which included two surveys and one experiment. Study 3 (247 adults) furnished cross-sectional evidence that extrinsically oriented contingent self-esteem predicts materialism. Study 4 (206 undergraduates) found that intrinsically oriented contingent self-esteem is negatively related to materialism. Study 5 (106 participants) showed that experimental induction of extrinsic and intrinsic contingent self-esteem, leads to higher and lower materialism respectively. The findings advance understanding on the self-esteem-materialism link by showing how the domain-specific view of self-esteem, has the potential to promote or discourage materialism based on whether self-esteem is anchored to external or internal domains. The current study makes a valuable attempt at integrating the antecedents and mediating mechanisms in the materialism well-being link in a single theoretical framework, thereby facilitating a more comprehensive understanding of materialism and its correlates. Recommendations for intervention researchers and practitioners are proposed. Doctor of Philosophy (HSS)

This thesis reports on how two children use moral reasoning as a resource in order to resist impositions from others in their everyday interactions. Children are frequently met with constraints and impositions placed upon them by parents, caregivers, friends, siblings, and others in their daily lives. Even at a young age, children are able to bring a variety of linguistic and multimodal resources to bear upon these situations in which they find themselves. Data in the form of naturally-occurring video and audio recordings in the children’s home setting is collected, transcribed, examined and analysed using Conversation Analysis (CA) and Membership Categorization Analysis (MCA) methods, pioneered by sociologist Harvey Sacks in the 1960s. These two methodologies were used in their Ethnomethodological sense, incorporating sequential and categorial work, which open the way to participant-oriented, child-focused analyses. Close examination of the two young children’s constructions and applications of moral reasoning reveal that they employ three specific interactional practices. It is found that children invoke rules, or even create them, primarily in situations of conflict and in order to accomplish their interactional goals. In addition, the children employ Extreme Case Formulations (ECFs) as described by Pomerantz (1986). Most prominent of these are ‘never’, ‘always’, ‘all’, ‘never ever’, etc., which the children employ to defend their arguments, to legitimize or justify their claims, to emphasize their points of view, or/and to exaggerate the ‘wrongness’ of the actions of their co-participants. Lastly, it is found that children employ Membership Categories (MCs) and Membership Categorization Devices (MCDs) while reasoning with their interlocutors. This involves the use of categories (e.g., ‘mummy’, ‘mummies and daddies’, ‘the Queen’) along with their attending ‘category-bound activities’ (Sacks, 1979). Our findings show that these two children were very adept at using a variety of resources in pursuits of their interactional goals. Through a range of discursive practices that engage their co-participants in a series of negotiations and moral reasoning, these children were able to counter impositions to varying degrees of success. It is hoped that an understanding of children’s employment of a variety of linguistic and multimodal resources such as invocations of rules, employment of ECFs, MCs, and MCDs will shed light on the learning and development of language and reasoning skills in young children. Doctor of Philosophy (HSS)

The number and percentage of older adults continue to increase dramatically around the world. Subthreshold depression is not often highlighted in the field of gerontology, although it has a high prevalence rate among older adults. Subthreshold depression refers to a cluster of depressive symptoms in which the number, duration, or quality are insufficient to meet the diagnosis of a major depression. Among older adults, subthreshold depression is at least two to three times more prevalent than major depression and leads to many negative outcomes. Among the various depression treatments, which range from biological to psychosocial interventions, exercise is considered to be an effective and cost-efficient non-clinical intervention for subthreshold depression. Exergame is a special type of exercise, wherein the exercise activities are combined with video gaming. Several recent attempts to investigate the feasibility and preliminary effects of exergames as a depression intervention have been conducted. However, because of the lack of rigorous controlled studies in this domain, the true effectiveness of exergames on subthreshold depression remains unclear especially on older adults. Hence, it is important to investigate the anti-depressive effects of exergames and the potential influencing factors of using exergames as depression therapy for older adults with subthreshold depression. The current research sought to understand the application and effectiveness of exergames for subthreshold depression. A systematic review and meta-analysis of ten existing studies were conducted to investigate the anti-depressive effects of exergames. An overall significant effect size of Hedges’ g = 0.23 was identified among eleven trials, which supported the positive effects of exergames on alleviating depression. Findings from the subgroup analysis further identified several significant moderators , such as demographic factors, number of sessions, depression severity, and player interaction. The systematic review also provided the basis and guidance to develop two controlled studies, Study One and Study Two, to empirically investigate the effects and influencing factors of exergames on subthreshold depression among older adults. From the previous depression studies and psychological theories, such as Theory of Flow and Social Cognitive Theory, Study One hypothesised that exergames have a superior anti-depressive effects over traditional exercise. A controlled study with repeated measures was conducted to test the differences in the effects of exergames and traditional exercise over six weeks among 50 older adults in Singapore. Results from the two-way MANOVA indicated that participants in exergames had significantly lower subthreshold depression and higher positive affect over the intervention period than those in traditional exercise. No significant exercise platform effects were reported on self-efficacy over time. Study Two further investigated the potential effects and mechanism of play mode in exergames. A conceptual model was built based on previous theories and game studies. The model implied that play mode might affect depression through the mediation effects of social support and loneliness. This implication was tested using a between-group study with two different conditions of single-player or multiple-player (two players) exergames among 52 Singaporean older adults for six weeks. Findings demonstrated that multiple-player condition led to better improvements on subthreshold depression and loneliness among older adults, when compared to single-player condition. The examination of the conceptual model further supported the mediation role of loneliness in the association between play mode and subthreshold depression. Although social support was not confirmed to be a significant mediator, the findings suggested its potential moderation effects, which should be tested in the future research. This research has several main contributions. First, findings were promising to suggest the implementation of exergames as a regular health programme for older adults, in both general and clinical practices. Second, the introduction of play mode effects opened the theoretical discussion on optimising the anti-depressive effects of exergames and encouraged the multiple-player mode. Lastly, the research highlighted challenges and future directions in this new domain, which include examining the effects of demographic factors, such as age group, gender, and physical conditions, exploring the effects of playing with different people, and calling for more Asian-focused studies. Doctor of Philosophy (WKWSCI)

Although prefrontal brain impairments are one of the best-replicated brain imaging findings in relation to aggression, little is known about the causal role of this brain region. This study tests whether stimulating the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex using transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) reduces the likelihood of engaging in aggressive acts, and the mechanism underlying this relationship. In a double-blind, stratified, placebo-controlled, parallel-group, randomized trial, 81 human adults (36 males, 45 females) were randomly assigned to an active (N = 39) or placebo (N = 42) condition, and then followed up 1 d after the experiment session. Intentions to commit aggressive acts and behavioral aggression were assessed using hypothetical vignettes and a behavioral task, respectively. The secondary outcome was the perception of the moral wrongfulness of the aggressive acts. Compared with the sham controls, participants who received anodal stimulation reported being less likely to commit physical and sexual assault (p < 0.01). They also judged aggressive acts as more morally wrong (p < 0.05). Perceptions of greater moral wrongfulness regarding the aggressive acts accounted for 31% of the total effect of tDCS on intentions to commit aggression. Results provide experimental evidence that increasing activity in the prefrontal cortex can reduce intentions to commit aggression and enhance perceptions of the moral wrongfulness of the aggressive acts. Findings shed light on the biological underpinnings of aggression and theoretically have the potential to inform future interventions for aggression and violence. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Aggressive behaviors pose significant public health risks. Understanding the etiology of aggression is paramount to violence reduction. Investigations of the neural basis of aggression have largely supported correlational, rather than causal, interpretations, and the mediating processes underlying the prefrontal–aggression relationship remain to be well elucidated. Through a double-blind, stratified, placebo-controlled, parallel-group, randomized trial, this study tested whether upregulation of the prefrontal cortex reduces the likelihood of engaging in aggression. Results provide experimental evidence that increasing prefrontal cortical activity can reduce intent to commit aggressive acts. They also shed light on moral judgment as one mechanism that may link prefrontal deficits to aggression and, in theory, have the potential to inform future approaches toward reducing aggression.

Significance During communication, social ostensive signals (like gaze) are exchanged in a temporally contingent manner. Synchronized behavior creates social connectedness within human dyads, and even infants synchronize behaviorally with adults. However, the neural mechanisms that support infant–adult synchronization are unknown. Here, we provide evidence that infants up-regulate neural synchronization with adult partners when offered direct ostensive gaze, as compared with gaze aversion. Gaze therefore brings infant–adult neural activity into mutual alignment, creating a joint-networked state that may facilitate communicative success. Further, infants’ own communicative attempts were positively associated with adults’ neural synchronization to them, indicating mutual regulation of synchronization within infant–adult dyads. Thus, interpersonal neural synchronization may provide a mechanism by which infants construct their own earliest social networks., When infants and adults communicate, they exchange social signals of availability and communicative intention such as eye gaze. Previous research indicates that when communication is successful, close temporal dependencies arise between adult speakers’ and listeners’ neural activity. However, it is not known whether similar neural contingencies exist within adult–infant dyads. Here, we used dual-electroencephalography to assess whether direct gaze increases neural coupling between adults and infants during screen-based and live interactions. In experiment 1 (n = 17), infants viewed videos of an adult who was singing nursery rhymes with (i) direct gaze (looking forward), (ii) indirect gaze (head and eyes averted by 20°), or (iii) direct-oblique gaze (head averted but eyes orientated forward). In experiment 2 (n = 19), infants viewed the same adult in a live context, singing with direct or indirect gaze. Gaze-related changes in adult–infant neural network connectivity were measured using partial directed coherence. Across both experiments, the adult had a significant (Granger) causal influence on infants’ neural activity, which was stronger during direct and direct-oblique gaze relative to indirect gaze. During live interactions, infants also influenced the adult more during direct than indirect gaze. Further, infants vocalized more frequently during live direct gaze, and individual infants who vocalized longer also elicited stronger synchronization from the adult. These results demonstrate that direct gaze strengthens bidirectional adult–infant neural connectivity during communication. Thus, ostensive social signals could act to bring brains into mutual temporal alignment, creating a joint-networked state that is structured to facilitate information transfer during early communication and learning.

Both expectations towards interactions with conspecifics, and genetic predispositions, affect adults׳ social behaviors. However, the underlying mechanisms remain largely unknown. Here, we report data to investigate the interaction between genetic factors, (oxytocin receptor (OXTR) and serotonin transporter (5-HTTLPR) polymorphisms), and adult interactional patterns in shaping physiological responses to social distress. During the presentation of distress vocalizations (cries of human female, infants and bonobos) we assessed participants׳ (N = 42 males) heart rate (HR) and peripheral nose temperature, which index state of arousal and readiness to action. Self-reported questionnaires were used to evaluate participants’ interactional patterns towards peers (Attachment Style Questionnaire, Feeney et al., 1994 [1]), and the quality of bond with intimate partners (Experiences in Close Relationships Scale, Fraley et al., 2000 [2]). To assess participants׳ genetic predispositions, the OXTR gene (regions rs53576, and rs2254298) and the 5-HTTLPR gene (region SLC6A4) were genotyped. The data set is made publicly available to enable critical or extended analyzes. Keywords: Adult interaction, Oxytocin receptor gene, Social abilities, Gene*environment, Physiological responses to social distress

In this dissertation, a goal-driven approach was used to study socially desirable responding and self-verification. This dissertation proposed that the way individuals regulate their goal pursuit or regulatory mode can affect how much individuals engage in socially desirable responding or self-verification and that this relationship operates through the need for cognitive closure. Also, it was proposed that these effects explain citizenship behaviors, which are important to performance in organizations. Five studies were conducted to test the proposed relations, of which four studies were used to test the relationships of regulatory mode on the two components of socially desirable responding and self-verification. Both survey and behavioral measures were utilized to test these relationships. The last study explored the regulatory mode-citizenship behavior link. Overall, the findings suggested that individuals high in locomotion mode (locomotors) who want to get things done tend to be decisive and believe in the positive characteristics about themselves. Individuals high in assessment mode (assessors) who want to get things done right tend to be consistent in their self-concept. At work, locomotors believe that they have positive characteristics and are inclined to impress others which lead them to effect changes in organizations (challenging citizenship behaviors) and help their coworkers (affiliative citizenship behaviors) respectively. In contrast, assessors tend to engage in challenging citizenship behaviors only. These findings can bridge research in socially desirable responding and self-verification, as well as, address the issue of faking in personnel selection and placement from a new goal-driven perspective of regulatory mode. DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (NBS)

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a debilitating disorder with limited treatment efficacies. This could partly be attributed to inadequate knowledge of the neurobiological basis of the disorder. Even though OCD has a prevalence rate of 3% in Singapore, research in OCD is relatively lacking compared to other psychiatric conditions. Existing neuroimaging literature in OCD have commonly reported abnormalities within the fronto-striatal regions, and some studies also indicated the involvement of the cerebellum in the disorder. However, exact contributions of the cerebellum in OCD pathophysiology have been unexplored. This thesis aims to clarify the neural basis and examine aberrant neural activity involved in OCD pathophysiology. Four studies are presented in this thesis. Study 1 presents a meta-analysis to synthesize existing findings of differences in structural grey matter and executive-function task-related activations between OCD samples and controls. Results indicated group differences in frontal-thalamic and cerebellar grey matter, and task-related activations in the cingulate, parietal and caudate regions. These findings suggest probable involvement of regions beyond the cortico-striatal-thalamo-cortical (CSTC) circuitry in OCD pathophysiology. Findings from Study 1 set the stage for subsequent neural investigations... Doctor of Philosophy

“Home” is not just a physical compound. It is our natural habitat where meaningful and intimate time with our loved ones can be shared. This narrative has underpinned the motivation for individuals wanting to live out their last days at home. With swift medical advancement and growing perceptions that hospitals provide higher quality end-of-life care, deaths have however shifted from the home to hospitals. This dissertation aimed to explore the complex contextual factors involved in eliciting end-of-life care preferences and to identify facilitators and barriers of home deaths in Singapore with a specific focus on the impact of Advance Care Planning (ACP). A multiple methods approach using qualitative and quantitative research methodologies were used: (i) retrospective cohort study to identify factors associated with home deaths, and to profile end-of-life care preferences and determine concordance of care with these preferences; (ii) semi-structured focus group discussions with 63 healthcare professionals to understand the implementation of ACP and the elicitation of end-of-life care preferences; (iii) quasi-experimental study to ascertain the impact of ACP on the place of death. The dissertation results challenged the popular viewpoint that home is the most preferred place of death. Among individuals diagnosed with advanced illnesses, only 40% had a documentation of “home” as the preferred place of death in their ACP documents. Instead of being an independent decision, preferences for place of death were formed through negotiation between and co-constructed by the patient, family, and healthcare professionals. Families also often believed that better care can be provided for, in the hospital. Besides non-modifiable person- and family-level factors, our results suggested that receiving home palliative care and having an ACP documentation, were associated with a higher chance of dying at home. For non-cancer patients - who had limited access to home palliative care – ACP was associated with increased home deaths, and a significant reduction in unnecessary life-sustaining treatments and health resource use in their last month of life. With the expansion of the national ACP programme already underway, our results underscored the importance for policy makers to focus on changing societal mindsets regarding conversations about death and dying and shifting healthcare practices towards one that supports pro-active patient participation and shared decision-making. Further, given that most deaths still occurred in hospitals, hospitals must continue to be viable sites where high-quality end-of-life care is available. Doctor of Philosophy

Risk-Need-Responsitivity (RNR) framework is one of the most widely applied framework in correctional rehabilitation. It is common for offenders to present multiple needs for intervention, however, RNR framework provide little guidance on the design for intervention programs in such cases. Especially for drug offenders, the well-documented relationship between drug and crime suggest inter-play between drug abuse and criminal thinking. Apart from the drug-crime nexus, familial relationship supports the rehabilitation journey for drug offenders. The current study examined whether change via an intervention that targets the three areas could be related. Secondary data from 327 male inmates above the age of 18, incarcerated due to drug-related offence was used. The data was collected as part of a larger evaluation study on interventions for drug offenders by Singapore Prison Service. The results suggested that better familial relationship at pre-intervention could increase the rate of change for criminal thinking and drug abuse. Rate of change in criminal thinking and drug abuse were positively correlated, suggesting that the two needs could be targeted together. Master of Arts

Response styles (RS) are a respondent’s tendency to respond to questions in certain ways regardless of the content. RS received increasing interest, as it exerted negative impact on assessment of true scores by inflating or deflating observed values. A variety of approaches were proposed to identify various RS, including: Count Procedure, Representative Indicators Response Style (RIRS), Representative Indicators Response Style Means and Covariance Structure (RIRSMACS), and Multidimensional Nominal Response Model (MNRM), etc. However, there is lack of systematic simulation studies to examine performance of Count Procedure, RIRS, and RIRSMACS; examination of MNRM in prior simulation studies is not without limitations. Therefore, the present study explored performance of RS approaches under various simulation conditions, including different sample size (300 vs. 800), test length (10 vs. 20), and RS (No RS, Acquiescent RS, Extreme RS, vs. Mid-point RS). Results suggested that across 4 approaches explored in the present study, it was easier to detect MRS than ARS and ERS. Among 4 RS approaches, MNRM performed better than other approaches in picking out the correct RS. Results of simulation studies were discussed and recommendations of employing these approaches to identify RS were provided. Doctor of Philosophy

The subject of probability and statistics is easily dismissed by students as assemblages of formulae to be rote-memorized. We propose here an integration of simulation-based activities with certain mathematical paradoxes using patchwork assessment to first-year undergraduates, such that they can better appreciate the real-world context of probability and statistics. The proposed examples alongside various facilitation skills for the instructor are discussed. We also provide an original spreadsheet simulation program in Excel and Visual Basic for Applications to reproduce the numerical experiments. This program is capable of running Monte Carlo simulations for all three seminal Parrondo's paradox variants, and can be easily used by students and instructors; moreover, the computed datasets and code are fully-transparent, thereby allowing interactive discussions, modifications and extensions, and further analyses. Our findings suggest that the proposed teaching strategy is useful, and we hope that this work will initiate the significant adoption of paradoxical simulations in teaching practice. The interactive program is freely available on open science framework. Published version

This study investigates the valence of adults’ implicit associations to typical and atypical infant cues, and the consistency of responses across the different stimuli. 48 non-parent adults (25 females, 23 males) were presented three kinds of infant cues, typical cry (TD-cry), atypical cry (ASD-cry) and infant faces, and their implicit associations were measured by means of the Single Category Implicit Association Test (SC-IAT). Results showed that, independently of gender, the implicit associations to typical and atypical infant cries had the same negative valence, whereas infant faces were implicitly associated to the positive dimension. Moreover, data showed that implicit responses to the different infant cues were not associated. These results suggest that more controlled processes influence the perceptions of atypical infant cry, and confirm the need to investigate individual reactions to infant cues by adopting a multilevel approach.

Although the field of psychiatry has witnessed the proliferation of studies on Gene × Environment (G×E) interactions, still limited is the knowledge we possess of G×E interactions regarding developmental disorders. In this perspective paper, we discuss why G×E interaction studies are needed to broaden our knowledge of developmental disorders. We also discuss the different roles of hazardous versus self-generated environmental factors and how these types of factors may differentially engage with an individual’s genetic background in predicting a resulting phenotype. Then, we present examplar studies that highlight the role of G×E in predicting atypical developmental trajectories as well as provide insight regarding treatment outcomes. Supported by these examples, we explore the need to move beyond merely examining statistical interactions between genes and the environment, and the motivation to investigate specific genetic susceptibility and environmental contexts that drive developmental disorders. We propose that further parsing of genetic and environmental components is required to fully understand the unique contribution of each factor to the etiology of developmental disorders. Finally, with a greater appreciation of the complexities of G×E interaction, this discussion will converge upon the potential implications for clinical and translational research. Published version

Most of the existing theories of dyslexia have been based on the behavioural deficits and aberrant neural activity observed in individuals with dyslexia. However, growing evidence has pointed towards a possible deficit in the effective network connectivity, whereby a shift in directional modulatory connectivity from one region to another is documented. Thus, the present dissertation aimed to explicate the impact of dyslexia on the effective connectivity network during verbal working memory using dynamic causal modeling (DCM). Throughout the thesis, three lines of investigation were conducted. Study 1 set the stage for the dissertation by extending the verbal working memory network established by Chen and Desmond (2005a) to elucidate the effective network connectivity in typical adults during verbal working memory. The results were consistent with previous studies, demonstrating activations at both the cortical and subcortical regions. Notably, results from the Bayesian model selection analysis indicated that the data obtained from the typical adult population showed a better fit for the model where the connectivity pathway from the left inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) to the left inferior parietal lobule (IPL) was modulated in addition to the modulatory effects on both the frontal/superior cerebellar articulatory control system and the parietal/inferior cerebellar phonological storage system. Subsequently, Study 2a examined the underlying neural network during verbal working memory in typically developing children. Reduced neural activity was observed across all the regions of interest. Additionally, an analysis of hemispheric laterality showed a left-cerebro right-cerebellar lateralisation, which is similar to that documented in the adult population. Moving beyond functional activation, results revealed unique dynamics in effective connectivity, whereby data obtained from the typically developing children population displayed a better fit for the model with unilateral modulatory effect on three distinct pathways: (1) from the inferior frontal gyrus to the inferior parietal lobule, (2) the frontal/superior cerebellar articulatory pathway and (3) the parietal/inferior cerebellar phonological storage pathway. These findings were similar to that of adults. Lastly, study 2b examined how dyslexia contributes to the differences in effective connectivity pathway during verbal working memory in the pediatric population. Results indicated that, in comparison to typically developing children, children with dyslexia displayed significantly reduced activation at both the inferior and superior cerebellum. Consistent with the functional activation results, Bayesian model selection showed that the data obtained from the children with dyslexia indicated a slight better fit for the model with only modulatory effects from the left inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) to the left inferior parietal lobule (IPL). Further analysis revealed that the data obtained from the children with dyslexia showed a better fit for models without modulatory connectivity from the cortical to subcortical regions. Taken together, this dissertation shed light on the effective connectivity between one neuronal region to another within the verbal working memory network in three distinct populations. It has advanced present knowledge of the influence of cross-sectional age-related effects, and the contributions of dyslexia on the effective connectivity network during verbal working memory. More importantly, the results from the study support the case for a new hypothesis that may provide a more holistic explanation of the deficits observed in dyslexia: the cerebro-cerebellar network theory of dyslexia. In conclusion, the findings from the present dissertation serve as a springboard for future studies which aim to explore the possible differences in network connectivity pathways used by children with dyslexia using different task paradigms. More importantly, the study provided important implications that may facilitate the development of more targeted interventions for dyslexia. Doctor of Philosophy (HSS)

Relationship awareness—paying attention to one’s relationship—is critical for sustaining a romantic partnership (Acitelli, 1993, 2002). Previous research on relationship awareness has concentrated on its effects on relationships following face-to-face communication between romantic partners (e.g., Acitelli, 1988; Cate, Koval, Lloyd, & Wilson, 1995). Technological advancement has substantially diversified romantic partners’ means of communication. Digitized interactions including texting, emails, and social networking sites (SNSs) have substituted a considerable portion of face-to-face interactions. Particularly, SNSs have greatly affected the initiation, maintenance, and dissolution of romantic relationships (e.g., Fox & Warber, 2013; Marshall, Bejanyan, Di Castro, & Lee, 2013; Sosik & Bazarova, 2014). However, there is a gap in the existing literature on relationship awareness and the current diversification of romantic interactions among partners. Accordingly, this thesis examined relationship awareness on the most prevalent SNS—Facebook. This thesis investigated how one partner’s relationship awareness as expressed on Facebook influences the other partner’s relationship satisfaction. These behaviors were hypothesized to increase partners’ relationship satisfaction. Furthermore, the perceived partner commitment was hypothesized to mediate this effect. I conducted four studies to examine the association between relationship awareness and partner’s relationship satisfaction. First, in a field study (Study 1), I demonstrated that an individual’s use of linguistic markers of relationship awareness in Facebook status updates (i.e., first-person plural nouns and possessive words) were positively correlated with the partner’s relationship satisfaction (assessed as a tendency to use positive words in status updates as well as a measure of subjective well-being). Subsequently, I experimentally manipulated the introduction (Studies 2 and 3) and removal (Study 4) of Facebook cues of relationship awareness to further test their effects on partners’ relationship satisfaction and the effect of perceived partner commitment. The results showed that individuals’ posting of dyadic photos and a partnered relationship status on Facebook (i.e., cues of relationship thinking) caused their partner to experience higher perceived partner commitment. Furthermore, the introduction (removal) of these cues increased (decreased) the partner’s relationship satisfaction. In contrast, although tagging the partner in status updates (i.e., cues of relationship talking) increased the partner’s relationship satisfaction, it had no effect on perceived partner commitment. The present study deepens our understanding of relationship awareness on Facebook, and has implications for the research on the interpersonal perception of romantic partners. Furthermore, the results also illuminate the current rituals of romantic relationships on SNSs among young people, and prompt future studies investigating the detailed content of online self-disclosure, as well as each romantic partner’s relationship experience. Doctor of Philosophy (HSS)

Much of existing theorisation of literary trauma privileges the adult perspective over the child perspective, with critics such as Cathy Caruth and Anne Whitehead focusing their research on narratives that revolve around adult victims—or sufferers—of trauma. This paper seeks to expand upon the existing assumption that the sufferer of trauma is synonymous with the adult perspective by putting forward a study of the traumatised child—the individual who exists outside of conventional tenets of traumatic experience when it comes to how they are represented in fiction. Master of Arts (HSS)

As Web 2.0 is changing the way of scholarly discussion and the measurements of journal articles impact, altmetrics have garnered much attention in recent years. Altmetrics measure the scholarly impact of journal articles based on how a research study is obtained, read, discussed, shared, and recommended on social media platforms among a variety of audiences. The purpose of this study is to understand the similarities and differences between the Twitter users who tweet on journal articles in psychology and political science disciplines. The data for this study was collected from Web of Science, Altmetric.com and Twitter. A total of 91,826 tweets with 22,541 distinct Twitter user profiles for psychology discipline and 29,958 tweets from 10,478 distinct Twitter for political science discipline were used for analysis. The demographics analysis include gender, geographic location, individual or organization user, academic or non-academic background, psychology/political science domain knowledge background. A machine learning approach using Support Vector Machine was introduced for user classification based on the Twitter user profile information. Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) topic modelling was used to discover the topics that the users discussed from the tweets. Results show that the demographics of Twitter users who tweeted on psychology and political science are significantly different. A higher percentage of female Twitter users are involved in the discussion of journal articles in psychology than in political science. The percentage of Twitter users from Europe who tweeted on journal articles in political science is higher than that in psychology as the political science tweets topics are more about Europe. There are 20.7% of more organization users who tweeted on journal articles in psychology than political science. The percentage of non-academic Twitter users tweeted on journal articles is higher in psychology than in political science. It was also identified that the percentage of Twitter users who have the domain knowledge in political science is twice of that in psychology. Tweets on journal articles in psychology reflect the impact of scientific research finding on general public better than political science. The journal articles of psychology discipline attract more attention from general public than those of political science discipline. Master of Science (Information Studies)

In recent years, research interest on bilingualism and its relation to cognitive control has grown. Given that engaging in the cognitive processes of language management in the brain is likely to result in changes to the neural system to improve cognitive efficiency, bilingualism is expected to positively benefit cognitive control. However, the experience of bilingualism is varied. Some individuals are more comparable in their proficiency in both languages (more-balanced), while others are much more proficient in their dominant language than they are in their weaker language (less-balanced). The Adaptive Control hypothesis (Green & Abutalebi, 2013) is a theoretical framework proposed as to how bilinguals manage two languages in their minds. As part of the theory, they highlight the importance of context; three different bilingual conversational contexts were identified, and differing cognitive demands were attributed to those three contexts. The main research question in the current thesis is to examine the relation between bilingualism balance and attentional control in preschool children. Young children have high levels of attentional plasticity; to examine the relation in this age group has far reaching implications both theoretically and practically. Previous studies have found a positive relationship between bilingualism balance and attentional control, with more-balanced bilinguals performing better on the attention task than the less-balanced bilinguals (e.g. Carlson & Meltzoff, 2008; Poarch & van Hell, 2012). However, there have been some research gaps. Firstly, due to the complex nature of measuring language proficiency and experience, there is yet to be a commonly accepted measure of bilingualism balance. Secondly, results comparing bilingualism balance and attention have not been consistent across studies; there is a lack of information regarding which aspect of the bilingualism experience is related to which subcomponent of attention. Thirdly, there is also a lack of understanding of the mechanism underlying how bilingualism balance relates to attentional control. We propose a contextual-based attention control perspective as an underlying mechanism, by highlighting the importance of different language contexts and the role of attention in language monitoring and selection. We contend that, due to the differences in the contexts that a more-balanced bilingual experiences as compared to a less-balanced bilingual, the cognitive demands differ between them and therefore the more-balanced bilingual will have higher cognitive control than the less-balanced bilingual. In response to the research gaps, we conducted three studies. In Study 1, we set out to determine the real-world bilingual experience correspondence of our chosen index of bilingualism balance: vocabulary tests ratios. We compared parental reported exposure and use of each language with receptive and expressive vocabulary scores. Results showed moderately strong correlations between parental reported scores and the vocabulary tests ratios, supporting the use of this balance index in the subsequent studies. In Study 2, we examined the relation between bilingualism balance and attentional control. Using the ratio of receptive vocabulary across languages as a proxy for language exposure, and expressive vocabulary ratio as a proxy for language production, we compared the vocabulary ratios to different network performances on the Attention Network Test (ANT). Results indicated that in general, more-balanced bilinguals (higher ratio) performed better on the ANT as compared to the less-balanced ones. Specifically, both aspects of language experience (exposure and production) were related to two of the attentional networks (alerting and conflict). Study 3 was designed to endeavor to understand the mechanism behind how bilingualism balance affects attentional control. To investigate the importance of different linguistic contexts, the aspect we proposed to be what more and less-balanced bilinguals differ on, we experimentally induced different language contexts to see the subsequent performance on the ANT. Participants were randomly assigned them to one of three conditions: before completing the ANT, they had to complete a picture-recognition task either (1) in their dominant language, (2) in their weaker language, or (3) in a mixture of the two languages (to simulate language-switching). It was found that the children who completed the language task in their weaker language and the language switching condition showed higher overall accuracy in the subsequent ANT compared to those who completed the task in their dominant language. Taken together, the studies suggest that more-balanced bilingual children (as compared to less-balanced ones) exhibit better attentional control, and this difference may be due to the differences in exposure to their languages between these two groups; the less-balanced bilinguals are exposed mostly to their dominant language, and since that context does not require as much cognitive demands, they are less likely to practice attentional control, as compared to being in a highly bilingual environment, which is more common in more-balanced bilinguals. Given the cultural and societal differences inherent in bilingualism all over the world, caution needs to be taken when generalizing the conclusions, but the results have both theoretical and practical implications on promoting balanced bilingualism among young bilinguals to benefit their attentional control. Doctor of Philosophy (HSS)

Research into player-avatar relationship have found that players are able to experience different levels of emotional attachment, agency, embodiment, and identification with their game avatar. While current literature mostly addresses the psychological processes that form different types of player-avatar relationship, lesser is known about the mechanisms and processes of player-avatar relationship construction. Hence, the current study explores how game play experiences and the interpretation of game mechanics help players rationalize their relationship with game avatars. 28 adults who played an action adventure PS4 game, The Last of Us, participated in game play interviews and semi-structured in-depth interviews. Thematic analysis of the results revealed six different themes that explain the mechanisms that link players’ gameplay experiences to their relationship with the game avatar. Subsequently, this paper discusses three major tendencies in which players may construct player-avatar relationships and the processes of player-avatar relationship construction. ​Master of Communication Studies

Salient vocalizations are automatically processed and distinguished from emotionally irrelevant information. However, little is known of how contextual, gender and attentional variables interact to modulate physiological responses to salient emotive vocalizations. In this study, electrocardiogram (ECG) was utilized to investigate differences in peripheral nervous activity of men and women to infant cry (IC), infant laughter (IL) and adult cry (AC) in two different situational contexts: the domestic environment (DE) and the outside environment (OE). As the mental state of listeners can affect their response to vocalizations, a between-subject design was applied: one group was instructed to imagine being inside the scenes (Task 1: explicit task), and the other group was told to look at the scenes (Task 2: implicit task). Results revealed that females exhibited lower inter-beat interval (IBI) index in the OE condition, as compared to both males in OE and females in DE conditions, suggesting greater physiological arousal amongst females in response to vocalizations in an outside environment. Additionally, Task 1 revealed that males demonstrated higher Low Frequency/High Frequency (LFHF) index towards AC than IL. Task 2 showed the same association between these two sounds in females. The implicit task also elicited lower LFHF index in response to both IL and IC than control sound (CS), only amongst females. Findings highlight the important roles that contextual information and cognitive demand play in regulating physiological responses to salient emotive vocalizations. Integrated perspectives of physiological responses to emotive vocalizations that consider the influence of internal (adult mental states) and external (environment) contextual information will provide a better understanding of mechanisms underlying emotional processing of salient social cues. Accepted version

Developmental outcomes are determined by the interactions between myriad factors operating at many different levels (Bronfenbrenner, 1992; Sameroff, 2009). Broadly speaking, these factors may be related to the genetic background of the individual (genotype) as well as from the external world (environment) with which the individual interacts. During development, the interaction between genotype and environment (Genotype × Environment or G × E) is paramount to the ontogeny of the specific phenotype, which is the set of observable characteristics of the individual. Indeed, one way to conceptualize the diverse array of resulting phenotypes is as the result of different genotypes responding to environmental variation in different ways. Accepted version

Background Aging in both humans and rodents appears to be accompanied by physiological changes that increase biologic sensitivity to ethanol (EtOH) intoxication. However, animal models designed to investigate this increased alcohol sensitivity have yet to be established. For this reason, we sought to determine whether acute EtOH administration produces differential effects on motor coordination and spatial cognition in young adult and aged rats. Methods Male young adult (postnatal day 70 to 72) and aged (~18 months) Sprague-Dawley rats were assessed on 2 motor tasks (the accelerating rotarod [RR] and the aerial righting reflex [ARR]) and a single cognitive performance task (the Morris water maze [MWM]). Following acute EtOH exposure via intraperitoneal injection, animals' performance was reassessed. Results Aged rats showed a dramatic increase in EtOH-induced ataxia on the RR and the ARR relative to young adult animals. Similarly, results from the MWM revealed that aged animals had slightly greater EtOH-induced impairments compared with young adult animals. Importantly, the increased impairments produced by EtOH were not due to differential blood EtOH levels. Conclusions We demonstrate for the first time that aged rats show greater EtOH-induced deficits compared with young adults in tasks of motor and cognitive performance. The possible role of protein kinase C as a mechanism for increased sensitivity to the motor-impairing effects of EtOH is discussed. Given the high prevalence of alcohol use among the elderly, increased vulnerability to alcohol-induced deficits may have a profound effect on injury in this population.

Stress occurs when environmental demands exceed individual competence. Threat/challenge appraisal reflects individuals’ negative or positive interpretation of stress. Coping flexibility equips individuals with the ability to employ effective strategies to deal with environmental changes. Plenty of research has explored the influence of appraisals and coping on psychological well-being, however, the working mechanism regarding how stress determines psychological outcomes through threat/challenge appraisal and coping flexibility, has not been fully understood. Hence, it is essential to investigate how threat and challenge appraisals, as well as coping flexibility, influence each other and determine individuals’ psychological outcomes under stress. Doctor of Philosophy (HSS)

Mental workload estimation has been under extensive investigation over the years, because the capability of monitoring the cognitive workload enables the prevention of cognitive overloading and improvement of workplace safety. Electroencephalogram (EEG) signals has been found to be an objective and non intrusive measure of mental workload. However, the evaluation of cognitive workload based on single trial EEG data, which is an essential step towards real time workload monitoring and brain computer interface, has been a major challenge. Recently, a number of advanced feature extraction methods and machine learning algorithms have been employed in EEG based mental workload assessment. In this study, we performed single trial workload classification using the EEG data recorded during the performance of n back tasks with 2 levels of difficulty (corresponding to low and high levels of workload respectively), examined the effectiveness of 3 types of feature extraction (spectral power, discrete wavelet transform and common spatial filtering), and evaluated the performance of 4 classification algorithms (support vector machine, K nearest neighbors, random forest and gradient boosting classifiers). Our findings indicate that common spatial filtering was the best performing individual feature extraction method for single trial based workload classification, and the optimal performance was achieved by combining the features from either spectral power or discrete wavelet transform with those from common spatial filtering, and adopting the random forest classifier. This study might provide some helpful guidance on the selection of feature extraction methods as well as machine learning algorithms in mental workload evaluation based on single trial EEG data. Published version

The study examined the mechanisms underlying the link between socioeconomic status and subjective well-being and explored the role of social activities using a representative sample of older adults ( N = 2773) in Shanghai, China. Results show that frailty mediated the relationship between socioeconomic status and subjective well-being, and social activities moderated the model, such that the mediation effect of frailty was significant only when social activities were lower. Moreover, the moderated mediation model was significant only for women, not for men. Findings highlight the importance of addressing frailty of older adults and promoting social activities (especially for elderly women) in future interventions.

In 6 studies, we systematically explored for the 1st time the ameliorative effects of multicultural experience on intergroup bias and investigated the role of epistemic unfreezing as the motivational mechanism underlying these effects. We found that multicultural exposure led to a reduction in stereotype endorsement (Studies 1, 4, and 6), symbolic racism (Study 5), and discriminatory hiring decisions (Study 2). We further demonstrated that experimental exposure to multicultural experience caused a reduction in need for cognitive closure (NFCC; Studies 3 and 6) and that the ameliorative effects of multiculturalism experience on intergroup bias were fully mediated by lower levels of NFCC (Studies 4, 5, and 6). The beneficial effects of multiculturalism were found regardless of the targeted stereotype group (African Americans, Ethiopians, homosexuals, and native Israelis), regardless of whether multicultural experience was measured or manipulated, and regardless of the population sampled (Caucasian Americans or native Israelis), demonstrating the robustness of this phenomenon. Overall, these results demonstrate that multicultural experience plays a critical role in increasing social tolerance through its relationship to motivated cognitive processes.

While social media has been increasingly used for communication of infectious disease outbreaks, little is known about how social media can improve strategic communication across various stages of the health crisis. The Crisis and Emergency Risk Communication Model (Reynolds &amp, Seeger, 2005, CERC) outlines strategies across different crisis phases and can guide crisis communication on social media. This research therefore investigates how social media can be utilized to implement and adapt the CERC model, by examining the strategic uses of Facebook in communicating the recent Zika epidemic by health authorities in Singapore. Zika-related Facebook posts of three main Singapore health agencies published within the one year period from January 2016 to December 2016 were thematically analysed. Results suggest that Facebook was used to communicate the crisis strategically, which supported and added to the CERC model. Novel uses of Facebook for outbreak communication were demonstrated, including promoting public common responsibility for disease prevention and expressing regards to the public for cooperation. Results also suggested that preparedness messages might be the most effective, as they produced a great level of public engagement. The adaptability of the CERC model in social media contexts to improve crisis communication is discussed.

According to Lutz, Slagter, Dunne and Davidson (2008), mindfulness practices can influence attention via two mechanisms, focused attention and open monitoring. Based on this framework, the current thesis investigated whether after one-session mindfulness practice focused attention and open monitoring mindfulness training can influence kindergarten children’s attention. A between- and within-subject mixed design was used. Five to six-year-old children were randomly assigned to three groups, focused attention mindfulness training, open monitoring mindfulness training, and an active control. All children underwent a 15-min practice session. In addition to a vocabulary test, before and after the practice, a battery of attention tests was administered. Results showed that focused attention and open monitoring influence children’s attention differentially. In particular, focused attention training shifted children’s visual perception towards local biasing, whereas open monitoring training improved children’s conflict monitoring. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed. Keywords: mindfulness, focused attention, open monitoring, attention Master of Arts (HSS)

Characteristics of relationship itself play an important role in determining well-being of individuals who participate in the relationship. We used efficacy expectations mutually shared between close friends or romantic partners as a characteristic of relationship and investigated its impact on their life satisfaction. In Study 1, we conducted a cross-sectional study among 137 pairs of close same-sex friends to test whether the efficacy expectations shared between friends are associated with levels of life satisfaction. In Study 2, we conducted a longitudinal study among 114 heterosexual romantic couples to test predictive validity of the efficacy expectations shared between couples predict levels of life satisfaction 2 month later. In both studies we found a consistent result that as degrees of the efficacy expectations shared between individuals in a relationship increased, the degree of their life satisfaction also increased. Underlying mechanisms that explain how characteristics of relationship itself increase life satisfaction are discussed. Published version

Despite increasing evidence that shows action video game play improves perceptual and cognitive skills, the mechanisms of transfer are not well-understood. In line with previous work, we suggest that transfer is dependent upon common demands between the game and transfer task. In the current study, participants played one of four action games with varying speed, visual, and attentional demands for 20 h. We examined whether training enhanced performance for attentional blink, selective attention, attending to multiple items, visual search and auditory detection. Non-gamers who played the game (Modern Combat) with the highest demands showed transfer to tasks of attentional blink and attending to multiple items. The game (MGS Touch) with fewer attentional demands also decreased attentional blink, but to a lesser degree. Other games failed to show transfer, despite having many action game characteristics but at a reduced intensity. The results support the common demands hypothesis. Published version

This Ph.D thesis consists of a novel artefact, titled Ria, and an accompanying exegesis by the same name. The novel takes the Medusa mythology as derived from Hesiod’s Theogony, Ovid’s The Metamorphoses, and Canto IX of Dante Alighieri’s Inferno, and places it within the fictional land of Manticura. Manticura, named after the mythological Manticora, is a speculative space that resembles Singapore in terms of its physical landscape, geographical location, and history. Manticura’s population is made of humans and the quasi-fantastic scereans, tuyuns, feleenese, and cayanese races, each with their own racial traits, histories and lands of emigrant origin. The narrative is largely centred on Ria, one of two medusa sisters, whose isolated rural life is overturned by the onslaught of displacing modernisation. In a single moment of misjudgement, Ria petrifies an entire village of innocents with her gaze. The novel then follows Ria through the next sixty years of her immortal life, in which she tries first to seek atonement for what she has done and later to build a life of peace, isolated from her sister and the community in the underground settlement of Nelroote. In this time she meets and starts a relationship with Eedric, before a turn of events disrupts the obscurity and safety of both Nelroote and the medusas it harbours.The exegesis examines the ways in which the theoretical ideas related to the ‘Medusan’ gaze come through within the figure of the novel’s title character. It is divided into three main bodies of argument: the first situates Ria within the critical genre of mythic revisionism and touches upon a few aspects of worldbuilding; the second looks at the construction of Barani’s and Ria’s gazes within existing premises of the look in the different structures of seeing; while the third deals with the intersections between the gaze’s creation of caesura and embodied memorialisation. Doctor of Philosophy (HSS)

The study explores 1) the efficacy of a stress manipulation, 2) the relations among stress, appraisals, mood and executive function and 3) the relations among parental responses towards preschoolers’ misbehavior, preschoolers’ behavior problems and preschoolers’ coping styles. One hundred and seven preschoolers were divided into four conditions and went through a) coloring, b) a novel stress manipulation with no appraisal manipulations, c) the stress manipulation with positive appraisal manipulations or d) the stress manipulation with negative appraisal manipulations. Mood and executive function were tested before and after the event. Additionally, parents of these children completed questionnaires on parental responses to children’s misbehavior, preschoolers’ coping styles and preschoolers’ problem behaviors. Results showed that 1) the stress manipulation was effective, 2) preschoolers’ appraisals mediated the relations between appraisal manipulations with mood and executive function respectively, and 3) mediated by preschoolers’ coping styles, negative parental responses were associated with children’s aggression, anxiety/depressive symptoms, emotional reactivity and somatic complaints respectively. The findings suggest that further research should be carried out on preschoolers’ appraisals and parental responses to better understand the impact of preschoolers’ appraisals on the effects of stress and parental responses on the relations between preschoolers’ coping styles and their preschoolers’ behavior problems. Master of Arts (HSS)

Decades of research have established an important distinction between the approach related and avoidance-related manifestations of the need for achievement (nAch), termed Hope of Success (HS) and Fear of Failure (FF) respectively. However, while researchers in the field of explicit motives have placed the approach-avoidance distinction at the heart of their theories of motivated behavior, implicit motive researchers have found it difficult to adequately assess and characterize HS and FF due to methodological limitations inherent in the most widely-used method of implicit motive assessment: the picture story exercise (PSE). The present research addresses these issues by redeveloping the two central components of the PSE instrument-the picture stimuli and the associated coding system-specifically for the purposes of HS and FF assessment. Study 1 sought to develop a picture set that improved both the validity and reliability of HS/FF assessment while also investigating the impact of a previously unstudied methodological consideration termed set ambiguity. Study 2 sought to consolidate existing content coding systems for PSE assessment of nAch, HS, and FF into a single composite system that simplified administration while retaining the best features of its constituents. Study 2 also clarified the relationships between nAch, HS, and FF as measured by contemporary PSE measures, establishing the equivalence of nAch and HS while reinforcing the distinction between nAch!HS and FF. In study lA, four rounds of pretesting identified eight contemporary images that were effective in arousing both HS and FF. In study lB, the validity and reliability of two versions of this picture set, one which depicted only achievement-related activity and one which was more ambiguous in its motivational content, were compared to those of a comparison picture set comprising frequently used images. The ambiguous version of the new picture set was found to exhibit better test-retest reliability than the unambiguous version, while HS and FF scores derived from the ambiguous version were found to be more predictive of theoretically relevant behaviors than scores derived from either the unambiguous version or the comparison picture set. In study 2A, data gathered during study 1 were coded for nAch, HS, and FF using the four most prevalent content coding systems. The resulting subcategory and motive scores were cluster analyzed, yielding a two factor structure that supported the HS-FF distinction while confirming the operational equivalence of nAch and HS. This clustering solution was subsequently used to guide to the construction of a simplified, consolidated content coding system in study 2B. In study 2C, data collected during study 1 were recorded using the new consolidated system. nAch/HS and FF scores derived from this new system were found to exhibit test-retest reliability, convergent validity, and predictive validity. Together, the new picture set and consolidated coding system address many of the most significant methodological issues in PSE assessment, and provide a powerful new tool for researchers wishing to investigate the approach- and avoidance-related manifestations of the achievement motive. DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (HSS)

Most of the existing models of language have been based on alphabetic languages; however, growing evidence has shown that character language processing, such as Chinese, might recruit differentiated brain networks due to its unique linguistic features. This thesis proposed a research framework by using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to investigate the neural mechanisms underlying Chinese character processing. We hoped to further explore whether Chinese character processing involved differential neuroanatomical representations as compared with the universal language network that has been based on alphabetic languages. The research framework consisted of two levels: direct and converging evidence, through three lines of investigations. Study 1 and Study 2 provided direct evidence of the neural mechanisms for Chinese character processing. Study 1 set the stage for this research by summarizing the neural networks underlying Chinese orthographic, phonological, and semantic processing independently. A meta-analysis was conducted on existing fMRI studies that investigated the neural substrates underlying Chinese character processing. The results demonstrated the divergent activation for three language-processing components and consolidated the findings of additional recruitment of the left middle frontal gyrus and the right ventral occipito-temporal cortex for Chinese character processing as compared with the universal language network. The additional regions are thought to form a sub-network that might be specific to Chinese character processing. Regions-of-interest (ROIs) were defined based on the meta-analysis findings and a priori ROI approaches were implemented in the subsequent studies to examine the involvement and integrity of the sub-network. Study 2 directly examined the involvement of the sub-network in Chinese character identification and homophone judgment with the aims to elucidate the functional roles of the ventral occipito-temporal cortex and the middle frontal gyrus in orthographic (Study 2a) and phonological processing (Study 2b), respectively. The bilateral ventral occipito-temporal cortices are involved in character form recognition, with the amount of activation modulated by lexicality effect and demands of orthographic analysis. The middle frontal gyrus is suggested to be a domain-general region that coordinates information from different domains, and thus it might be associated with orthography-to-phonology transformation in reading Chinese. Study 3 provided indirect evidence for the involvement of the sub-network in Chinese character processing by investigating the integrity of the sub-network in terms of how it might be affected by individual characteristics such as age and handedness. Study 3a examined age effects on the sub-network during word retrieval. Consistent with previous studies on alphabetic language speakers, the results showed increased bilateral inferior frontal activation and reduced default mode network deactivation in the older adults during the language tasks, indicating age-related changes in the neural correlates underlying word retrieval to be universal. However, age-related changes in the sub-network were also revealed by the ROI analysis, which suggest language-specific vulnerability to aging. Study 3b explored language dominance within the inferior frontal gyrus and the sub-network with respect to handedness. Handedness was indicative of the lateralization of all selected regions, and the lateralization was correlated between regions. While the lateralization of the inferior frontal gyrus seemed to be universal across speakers of different languages, spatial heterogeneity in language dominance was observed in the sub-network especially in the left-handers. These investigations shed light on the understanding of the functional roles and the integrity of the specialized sub-network for Chinese character processing. Identifying the differential activation of Chinese character processing provided important implications for clinical applications, such as pre-surgical planning and establishing models for intervention in language disorders. DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (HSS)

Which emotions are associated with universally recognized non-verbal signals?We address this issue by examining how reliably non-linguistic vocalizations (affect bursts) can convey emotions across cultures. Actors from India, Kenya, Singapore, and USA were instructed to produce vocalizations that would convey nine positive and nine negative emotions to listeners. The vocalizations were judged by Swedish listeners using a within-valence forced-choice procedure, where positive and negative emotions were judged in separate experiments. Results showed that listeners could recognize a wide range of positive and negative emotions with accuracy above chance. For positive emotions, we observed the highest recognition rates for relief, followed by lust, interest, serenity and positive surprise, with affection and pride receiving the lowest recognition rates. Anger, disgust, fear, sadness, and negative surprise received the highest recognition rates for negative emotions, with the lowest rates observed for guilt and shame. By way of summary, results showed that the voice can reveal both basic emotions and several positive emotions other than happiness across cultures, but self-conscious emotions such as guilt, pride, and shame seem not to be well recognized from non-linguistic vocalizations. Published version

Dyslexia is a learning disability that impairs one’s fluency in reading. It is estimated that about 5-17% of the population has dyslexia (Shaywitz & Shaywitz, 2001). Majority of the past studies on dyslexia were based on the English language. Nevertheless, in the past few years, studies of dyslexia in other languages such as Chinese language are slowly increasing. With the recent development of neuroimaging techniques such as fMRI, research trend has also shifted from examining the effect of dyslexia at the behavioral level to the brain level, which aids in the understanding of the neural basis of dyslexia. Thus far, three meta-analyses have been published on dyslexia in the alphabetical languages (Maisog, Einbinder, Flowers, Turkeltaub, & Eden, 2008; Richlan, Kronbichler, & Wimmer, 2009, 2011). However, no meta-analytic study has been conducted for non-alphabetical languages such as the Chinese language. Hence, this study is the first meta-analysis examining the effect of dyslexia in the Chinese language. Results from the Chinese language meta-analysis study replicates the results from previous empirical studies showing low activation primarily in areas such as the left middle frontal gyrus and the right middle occipital gyrus (Liu et al., 2012; Siok, Niu, Jin, Perfetti, & Tan, 2008; Siok, Perfetti, Jin, & Tan, 2004; Siok, Spink, Jin & Tan, 2009; Yang, 2005). In addition, functional neuroimaging single studies examining the effect of dyslexia in both alphabetical languages and Chinese language have shown that there are differences in the brain activations between these languages (Paulesu et al., 2001; Richlan et al., 2010; Siok et al., 2004). Using the meta- analysis technique, this study provides the first analysis comparing the effect of dyslexia between the alphabetical languages and the Chinese language. Lastly, the cross language generalizability of the two main theories of dyslexia (i.e. the phonological theory and the cerebellar theory) are also examined using functional neuroimaging data. Master of Arts

This research proposes and tests an empathy model of guest-directed discretionary behaviours (i.e., citizenship and counterproductive behaviours) using two studies conducted in three hotels. Building on the two-stage model of empathic mediation, we examined the mediating role of empathic concern in the relationship between perspective taking and both forms of discretionary behaviours in Study 1. Support for this mediated model was found in relation to citizenship behaviours but not for counterproductive behaviours. Study 2 was conducted to extend these findings using peer reports of discretionary behaviours, and to apply an interactional psychology perspective to predict guest-directed counterproductive behaviours. We drew upon trait activation theory to highlight the importance of situational triggers, in the form of interpersonal injustice from guests, in moderating the relationship between perspective taking and counterproductive behaviours, mediated through empathic concern. We found support for the hypothesized moderated mediation effect, such that perspective taking inhibited counterproductive behaviours through empathic concern only when interpersonal injustice was high, but not when injustice was low. Replicating the results in Study 1, perspective taking also positively predicted peer-reported citizenship behaviours, but this was not mediated by empathic concern. Research and practical implications from these findings are discussed.

The goal of the study is to examine whether family conflict generates peer-related stress and subsequent depressive symptoms among adolescents. In addition, in the context of the proposed mediation model, we examine whether negative cognitive styles about the self, cause, and consequences moderate the mediational pathway between peer stress and depressive symptoms. The study includes 179 adolescents (71 boys, 108 girls) ages 12 to 18, and the majority of the participants are Caucasian (79.5%). At the initial assessment, participants completed self-report measures regarding family conflict, negative cognitive style, stress, and depressive symptoms. Participants also completed 3 subsequent self-report assessments every 6 weeks in which information regarding stress and depressive symptoms were collected. Both within- and between-subject analyses indicate that dependent interpersonal peer stress partially mediates the relationship between greater family conflict and higher levels of depressive symptoms. Moreover, results of our moderated-mediation model indicate that negative cognitive styles regarding the self and cause, but not consequences, moderate the mediational pathway between peer stress and depressive symptoms. These findings underscore the importance of examining more comprehensive models that incorporate both cognitive and interpersonal vulnerability.

Individuals can negotiate with fate for control through exercising personal agency within the limits that fate has determined, a belief that is referred to as negotiable fate. The current study examined: (a) the social ecological factors that contribute to the prevalence of this belief in negotiable fate and; (b) the psychological functions it serves. The results from a cross-cultural study suggested that negotiable fate is more prevalent in contexts where individuals face many constraints in the pursuit of their goals (i.e., in Mainland China versus the United States), and it promotes active coping and positive self-views in those contexts. The importance of understanding how fate beliefs are linked to sociocultural contexts was discussed in reference to the psychological control literature and cultural psychology.

The experimental study reported here employed one of the most compelling visual cues of female sexual attractiveness (low waist-to-hip ratio) to test the influence of news anchor sexualization on audience evaluations of her as a professional and their memory for the news that she presents. Male participants saw the sexualized version of the anchor as less suited for war and political reporting. They also encoded less news information presented by the sexualized than her unsexualized version. Conclusions were drawn in line with evolutionary psychology expectations of men’s cognitive susceptibility to visual sex cues. Women participants, on the other hand, did not vary across conditions in their assessments of the anchor’s competence to report on war and political news. Moreover, they encoded more news information presented by the sexualized than unsexualized anchor condition.

In recent years, explorations of the neural correlates of empathy have been a rapidly growing and exciting area of discovery in social neuroscience. These studies have provided the foundations for understanding the neurobiological processes that allow us to experience and understand the pain and suffering of others. Here we draw upon findings from social and cultural neuroscience to explore how affordances and constraints to social perception and cognition provided by the cultural environments may shape the processes that underlie empathy. Specifically, we examine the dimensions of empathy and their respective neural substrates, and how shared cultural experiences or perceived similarity may facilitate empathic processing at both the subjective and neurobiological levels. Our review also examines emerging research examining the potential role of cultural perceptions of the self and relations with others on the psychological and neural processes of empathy. We conclude by suggesting how insights from a cultural neuroscience of empathy may inform clinical practice. Published version

Until recent years, depression in adolescents had received little research attention. Indeed, there was a prevailing assumption that depressive disorders rarely occurred in children and adolescents. This view stems from the theoretical notion that children and adolescents are too cognitively immature to be depressed, and the concept that psychopathological manifestations and difficulties represent normal developmental processes of childhood and adolescence (Rie, 1966). Nevertheless, a handful of investigators of depression in adolescence during the late 1970s and early 1980s had not only established the presence of depression at this developmental stage, but their work had also delineated some of the psychosocial impairments associated with depression. The late 1970s was also associated with an increasing recognition that children and adolescents exhibit the essential features of adult depression. This change in viewpoints is reflected in the use of the same adult criteria for depressive disorders in children and adolescents in the third edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III; American Psychiatric Association; APA, 1980) and its subsequent revisions (DSM-III-R; APA, 1987; DSM-IV; APA, 1994). Depressive disorders are characterized by the presence of depressed moods along with a set of additional symptoms, persisting over time, and causing disruption and impairment of function. In DSM-IV (APA, 1994), depressive disorders fall under the category of major depressive disorder, dysthymic disorder, and depressive disorder not otherwise specified. Major depressive disorder (MDD) denotes a severe, acute form of depressive disorder (DSM-IV; APA, 1994). The disorder is diagnosed when the adolescent has experienced at least five of the following nine symptoms nearly every day for at least a two-week period at a level that represents a change from previous functioning: depressed mood (or can be irritable mood in children and adolescents); markedly diminished interest or pleasure in all, or almost all activities; significant weight loss or weight gain, or decrease or increase in appetite (in children, consider failure to make expected weight gains); insomnia or hypersomnia; psychomotor agitation or retardation; fatigue or loss of energy; feelings of worthlessness or excessive or inappropriate guilt; diminished ability to think or concentrate, or indecisiveness; and recurrent thoughts of death, recurrent suicidal ideation without a specific plan, or a suicide attempt or a specific plan for committing suicide. At least one of the two core

This paper asks whether it is possible to read ethically. An ethical reading, if there is such a thing, would entail a response to the text that is not determined by any prior knowledge. Only under this condition can reading be open to the possibility of encountering what is genuinely new. But the reader’s prior knowledge is also a condition of the possibility of reading. I will argue that the consequence of this double bind is that a certain blindness is a necessary part of any putative ethical reading. Such blindness makes every reading contingent, but perhaps what an ethical reading should first acknowledge is the ultimate unknowability of the text. Master of Arts

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