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The continuous increase in the elderly population and the need for disability-inclusive public transportation propelled authorities to implement policies to ensure seat availability for vulnerable users. Although most public transportation provides a few priority seats for vulnerable users, the seat availability problem remains due to its small quantity and its usage by normal passengers. To extend the theory of planned behavior (TPB), this study aims to evaluate how empathic concerns, attitude, injunctive norms, descriptive norms, and perceived behavioral control contribute to the behavioral intentions and actual conducts of yielding seats to vulnerable passengers with university students’ survey responses in China. A partial least square path modeling based structural equation modeling (SEM) approach is employed to test the postulated hypotheses. Findings reveal that empathic concerns significantly promote the yielding seat intention and, thus, the actual conduct through its impacts on attitude, injunctive norms, and perceived behavioral control. This study also aims at capturing sociodemographic heterogeneity through multi-group comparison. It is found that a university student passenger who is older or more educated perceives greater control about seat yielding behavior, positively influencing their intention to yield their seat to a vulnerable person. In addition, less frequent public transportation usage is found to significantly accompany a higher tendency to yield a seat when required. The implications of “soft measures” to support the transportation policy for a sustainable and disability-inclusive public transportation service are discussed accordingly.

This vignette-based study examined the willingness to feign symptoms to obtain a prescription following an analysis on who might use prescription stimulants to enhance performance ( N = 3,468). It experimentally manipulated three factors: the social disapproval of prescription stimulant use for enhancement purposes, the physicians’ diagnostic efforts, and the medical condition (attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and narcolepsy); respondent characteristics of self-control, personal morality, and self-efficacy were also measured. Our results showed that social disapproval of prescription drug use, a personal morality that disapproves of drug use, high self-control, and high self-efficacy were negatively associated with the willingness to use. Willingness increased especially in situations of social approval when there was a stronger personal approval of drug use, or surprisingly when physicians’ diagnostic efforts were higher. The feigning willingness was lower in situations of social disapproval and when personal morality disapproved of feigning. Thus, personal and situational characteristics are relevant to understand both behaviors.

This study empirically investigates the effects of attitudes toward tax compliance, descriptive norms, injunctive norms, subjective norms, personal norms, tax compliance intention, financial performance, and mental accounting on tax compliance. The determinant are largely developed based on the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) and social norms. Data collection is carried out through field surveys to obtain a final sample of 209 respondents who are SME owners in 11 regencies/cities in Central Java Province, Indonesia. The data were analyzed using structural equation modeling (SEM). The results show that attitudes toward tax compliance, injunctive norms, subjective norms, personal norms, and financial performance positively affect SME owners’ tax compliance intentions. Furthermore, financial performance and tax compliance intentions have a positive effect on tax compliance behavior. However, we do not find empirical evidence that mental accounting has a role in strengthening the effect of tax compliance intentions on tax compliance behavior. This study contributes to the tax compliance literature through a more comprehensive measure of subjective norms and the use of financial performance as an alternative measure of perceived behavioral control.

While environmental concern is generally viewed as a straightforward precursor to pro-environmental behavior (PEB), empirical research supporting this association has been mixed at best. The energy-saving behavior of employees in the workplace contributes to the reduction of air pollution and carbon emissions, and there is basically no need to consider individual utilitarian factors in PEB-related research. Therefore, this study investigates the direct and indirect effects of environmental concerns on employees’ behavioral intentions to save energy in the offices of Chinese Internet companies to better understand the inconsistent results found for environmental concern and PEB. A study of a sample of 364 employees in three Chinese developed cities shows that perceived behavioral control has the greatest direct impact on employees’ energy-saving behavior in offices, followed by energy-saving attitudes, personal moral norm and subjective descriptive norms. The direct effects of environmental concern and subjective injunctive norms on behavioral intentions to save energy were found to be small. However, environmental concern, as an antecedent variable to the above elements, can have a significant impact on employees’ office energy-saving behaviors through the mediating role of these elements, thus rendering employees’ environmental concern deserving of more attention. This study enhances understanding of employees’ energy-saving behaviors in the workplace and provides several insights for researchers and practitioners.

To assess whether improvements in social norms related to iron and folic acid consumption are associated with increased iron and folic acid consumption.In a cluster randomized trial in Odisha, India, we implemented an intervention to improve descriptive norms (people's perceptions about how many other people take iron and folic acid), injunctive norms (social pressures people feel to take iron and folic acid) and collective norms (actual levels of iron and folic acid consumption). We assessed changes in these norms and self-reported iron and folic acid consumption in control and intervention arms after 6 months (September 2019-February 2020). We collected data from control (At follow-up, mean scores in self-reported iron and folic acid consumption in the control arm had decreased from 0.39 to 0.31 (21% decrease; not significant). In the intervention arm, mean scores increased from 0.39 to 1.62 (315% increase;Our results show that social norms can be improved and that these improvements are associated with positive behavioural changes. A social norms-based approach may help promote iron and folic acid consumption in India.Déterminer si l'évolution des normes sociales en matière de consommation de fer et d'acide folique a permis d'accroître cette consommation.Dans le cadre d'un essai randomisé en grappes dans l'Odisha, en Inde, nous avons mené une intervention visant à améliorer les normes descriptives (perception des gens vis-à-vis du nombre de personnes prenant du fer et de l'acide folique), injonctives (pression sociale ressentie par les gens, les incitant à prendre du fer et de l'acide folique) et collectives (niveaux de consommation réels pour le fer et l'acide folique). Nous avons évalué les changements affectant ces normes, ainsi que la consommation déclarée de fer et d'acide folique dans les groupes d'intervention et de contrôle après 6 mois (septembre 2019 – février 2020). Nous avons récolté des données dans les groupes de contrôle (Lors du suivi, les scores moyens en termes de consommation déclarée de fer et d'acide folique au sein du groupe de contrôle ont diminué de 0,39 à 0,31 (baisse de 21%; non significative). Au sein du groupe d'intervention, les scores moyens sont passés de 0,39 à 1,62 (hausse de 315%;Nos résultats montrent que les normes sociales peuvent évoluer, et qu'une telle évolution est liée à des modifications comportementales positives. L'adoption d'une approche fondée sur ces normes pourrait contribuer à promouvoir la consommation de fer et d'acide folique en Inde.Evaluar si las mejoras en las normas sociales relacionadas con el consumo de hierro y ácido fólico se asocian a un mayor consumo de hierro y ácido fólico.En un ensayo aleatorizado por grupos en Odisha, India, se implementó una intervención para mejorar las normas descriptivas (las percepciones de las personas sobre cuántas otras personas consumen hierro y ácido fólico), las normas por mandato (las presiones sociales que las personas sienten para que tomen hierro y ácido fólico) y las normas colectivas (los niveles reales de consumo de hierro y ácido fólico). Se evaluaron los cambios en estas normas y el consumo de hierro y ácido fólico informado por los participantes en los grupos de control y de intervención después de 6 meses (septiembre de 2019 a febrero de 2020). Se recopilaron datos de los grupos de control (En el seguimiento, las puntuaciones medias en el consumo de hierro y ácido fólico informado por los participantes en el grupo de control disminuyeron de 0,39 a 0,31 (disminución del 21 %; no significativa). En el grupo de intervención, las puntuaciones medias aumentaron de 0,39 a 1,62 (315 % de aumento;Los resultados de este ensayo demuestran que las normas sociales se pueden mejorar y que estas mejoras se asocian a cambios positivos del comportamiento. Un enfoque basado en las normas sociales puede ayudar a promover el consumo de hierro y de ácido fólico en la India.تقييم ما إذا كانت التحسينات في الثوابت الاجتماعية المتعلقة باستهلاك الحديد وحمض الفوليك مرتبطة بزيادة استهلاك الحديد وحمض الفوليك. اأثناء المتابعة، انخفض متوسط الدرجات في استهلاك الحديد وحمض الفوليك الذي أبلغ عنه الأشخاص ذاتيًا في ذراع التحكم من 0.39 إلى 0.31 (انخفاض بنسبة 21%؛ ليس ملموسًا). في ذراع التدخل، زاد متوسط الدرجات من 0.39 إلى 1.62 (زيادة بنسبة 315%؛ نسبة الاحتمال أقل من 0.001). كان الفرق بين الذراعين ذي دلالة إحصائية (نسبة الاحتمال أقل من 0.001). تحسن كل من الثوابت الثلاثة أيضًا بمعدلات أعلى بشكل ملموس في ذراع التدخل عنه في ذراع التحكم (نسبة الاحتمال أقل من 0.001 لكل من الثوابت). ارتبطت التغييرات في الثوابت الوصفية والجماعية (ولكن ليس الثوابت التحذيرية) بالتغيرات في استهلاك الحديد وحمض الفوليك الذي أبلغ عنه الأشخاص ذاتيًا (نسبة الاحتمال أقل من 0.001 لكلا الثابتين).تظهر نتائجنا أنه يمكن تحسين الثوابت الاجتماعية، وأن هذه التحسينات مرتبطة بالتغيرات السلوكية الإيجابية. قد يساعد الأسلوب القائم على الثوابت الاجتماعية في الارتقاء باستهلاك الحديد وحمض الفوليك في الهند.旨在评估与铁和叶酸消耗相关的社会规范的改善是否与铁和叶酸消耗量的增加有关。.在印度奥里萨邦的一项集群随机试验中，我们实施了一项干预措施以改善描述性规范（人们对有多少人服用铁和叶酸的看法）、指令性规范（人们对服用铁和叶酸感受到的社会压力）和群体性规范（铁和叶酸消耗的实际水平）。我们对这些规范的变化进行了评估，并对 6 个月后（2019 年 9 月至 2020 年 2 月）对照组和干预组中铁和叶酸的消耗量进行了自我报告。我们从对照组（n = 2048）和干预组（n = 2060）收集了基线数据和后续数据（分别为 n = 1966 和 n = 1987）。.在后续跟踪中，自我报告显示对照组中铁和叶酸消耗量的平均分值从 0.39 下降到 0.31（下降了 21%；不显著）。干预组中的平均分值从 0.39 增加到 1.63（增加了 315%；我们的结果表明社会规范可以得到改善，并且这些改善与积极的行为改变有关。基于社会规范采取的方法可能有助于促进印度地区铁和叶酸的消耗量。.Оценить, связаны ли улучшения социальных норм, относящихся к потреблению железа и фолиевой кислоты, с увеличением потребления железа и фолиевой кислоты.В кластерном рандомизированном исследовании, проводимом в штате Одиша, Индия, авторы осуществили мероприятие, направленное на улучшение дескриптивных норм (представления людей о том, какое количество человек принимают железо и фолиевую кислоту), предписательных норм (социальное давление, которое люди испытывают, чтобы принимать железо и фолиевую кислоту) и коллективных норм (фактические уровни потребления железа и фолиевой кислоты). Была проведена оценка изменения этих норм и самоотчетности о потреблении железа и фолиевой кислоты в группе контроля и экспериментальной группе после 6 месяцев (сентябрь 2019 г. — февраль 2020 г.). Авторы собрали данные группы контроля (В период последующего наблюдения средний балл по самоотчетности о потреблении железа и фолиевой кислоты в группе контроля снизился с 0,39 до 0,31 (снижение на 21%; несущественное). В экспериментальной группе средний балл увеличился с 0,39 до 1,62 (увеличение на 315%;Наши результаты показывают, что социальные нормы можно улучшить и что эти улучшения связаны с положительными изменениями поведения. Подход, основанный на социальных нормах, может способствовать увеличению потребления железа и фолиевой кислоты в Индии.

One way to persuade people to change their travel behaviours is to execute strategies based on the provision of persuasive normative messages. Several studies have reported that providing information on social norms can lead people to perform different pro-environmental actions, such as energy and water conservation. However, in the transportation field, little research has investigated whether normative messages can be used to encourage people to switch from driving cars to using more sustainable means of transport. The aim of the current paper is to explore whether the intention to use different travel modes can be influenced by a persuasive normative message. In particular, we studied the different impacts of descriptive norm and injunctive norm information alongside more traditional factors on the intention to use a car, public transport, or active mobility. To perform our analysis, we developed three integrated choice and latent variables (ICLV) models using the information collected from an experimental study conducted among a sample of 340 individuals living in the area of Cagliari (Sardinia, Italy). One of our modelling results indicates that individuals are more likely to use sustainable means of transport if they i) have previously used such means, ii) have a positive attitude toward them, iii) have an interest/involvement in using them, and iv) have been exposed to injunctive norms related to their use. Importantly, the computation of the pseudo-elasticity effect revealed that the impact of past behaviour is much stronger than the impact of normative messages.

Describing that many people perform a certain behavior has been known to increase people's behavioral intentions. However, the underlying premise is that the behavior must be high in prevalence. The present study examined whether describing low-prevalence behaviors (static norm) and framing low-prevalence behaviors as increasing in popularity across time (dynamic norm) may increase behavioral intentions in the context of getting the flu shot and eating less red meat. In addition, the study aimed to examine whether other behavioral antecedents could moderate the effect of viewing these normative messages. An experiment that randomly assigned participants to view either dynamic norm messages, static norm messages, and no messages (control) was conducted. Results indicated that for the behavior of eating less red meat, viewing a static norm message backfired while viewing a dynamic norm message did not. Moreover, the effect of viewing low-prevalence norm messages was moderated by other behavioral antecedents such as, current and future injunctive norm perceptions and attitude. These findings contribute to the theoretical and practical understanding of utilizing low-prevalence norms for persuasion.

PurposeCommunication plays an important role in health decisions and behaviors. Friends and family exert influence through communication and, when considering smoking, this is particularly salient among those friends and family who smoke. Guided by primary socialization theory and integrated behavioral model, the present study examined the effects of having smoking friends and family on smoking beliefs (e.g. negative consequences, positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement), cultural normative beliefs, pro-smoking injunctive norms, smoking intentions and recent smoking behaviors.Design/methodology/approachCross-sectional online survey data were collected from college students (N = 227). Multivariate analysis of covariance and path analysis were performed.FindingsCollege students who reported having smoking friends were more likely to report higher levels of positive reinforcement, cultural normative beliefs, pro-smoking injunctive norms, positive attitudes, smoking intentions and recent smoking behaviors than those without smoking friends. Frequent communication with smoking friends was significantly related to cultural normative beliefs, pro-smoking injunctive norms, positive attitudes and smoking intentions. The analysis, however, did not yield statistical support for the associations between frequent communication with smoking family and smoking perceptions, norms and behaviors.Originality/valueThe present study highlights the vital roles of friends' influence for college students' smoking behaviors. Communication-based intervention can help better equip college students with communication strategies that prevent tobacco use by promoting more effective conversations with friends.

Using a four-wave/seven-month longitudinal design with a sample of 1595 preadolescents (53% boys, 47% girls, Mage = 10.2 years) from 63 fourth-, fifth- and sixth- grade classrooms in nine mixed-sex schools in Bogota, Colombia, we examined whether growth trajectories of measures of overt and relational aggression varied as a function of classroom norms for aggression. Multilevel growth mixture modeling revealed (a) distinct trajectories of overt and relational aggression for boys and girls and (b) that norm salience (i.e., the process by which a group norm is made salient via the punishments or reinforcements to the behavior within the group) was a better predictor of associations with trajectories of overt and relational aggression than were perceived injunctive norms (i.e., the perceived standards of what is approved or disapproved in a social context). In classrooms where popular or accepted children were perceived by their peers as aggressive, more boys followed an increasing trajectory of overt and relational aggression than a low-stable trajectory, and more girls followed a high-stable trajectory of relational aggression than a low-stable trajectory. These findings are discussed in terms of the practical implications for the design of educational interventions aimed at preventing aggression in classroom settings.

This synthesis review examined 189 qualified studies on norms and smoking in terms of conceptual frameworks, types of social norms, research designs, dependent variables, independent variables and covariates, and findings related to norms. Results show that 7.9% were experimental, and the remaining were cross-sectional. By far, the reasoned action approach (RAA) was the most-cited theory, but RAA was not used to guide experimental designs. The social norms approach, norm focus theory, social cognitive theory guided the intervention experiments. Harmful norms were more frequently examined than healthful norms. Pro-smoking norms positively predicted smoking intentions and behaviors, whereas antismoking norms positively predicted antismoking intentions and behaviors. The over-application of RAA in cross-sectional antismoking research has yielded repetitive findings. Norm-based experiments can adopt other theoretical perspectives to offer insights into antismoking interventions. The RAA constructs are still applicable and can be integrated into intervention designs.

Communication with family members about the COVID-19 vaccine may play an important role in vaccination decisions, especially among young people. This study examined the association between family communication about the COVID-19 vaccine and vaccination intention. Participants were Black/African Americans aged 18–30 years (N = 312) recruited through an online survey in June 2020. We assessed family communication, vaccine attitudes, perceived norms, outcome expectancies, and vaccination intention. More than half (62%) of the participants had talked to family members about the vaccine. Females were more likely than males to have engaged in family communication (63% vs. 59%) (p. > .05). Family communication, injunctive norms, and descriptive norms were significantly (p. < .01) associated with vaccination intention. Family communication was the strongest predictor of intention. Promoting discussions about vaccinations between young Black adults and their families may increase the likelihood of adopting positive vaccination beliefs and influencing vaccine decision-making.

An emerging body of research demonstrates that dynamic norms, information about how norms are changing over time, may have positive effects above and beyond static norms, information about the prevalence of behaviors and attitudes at the current time (Sparkman & Walton, 2017). Dynamic norms promote self-efficacy, communicate that the change is important to others, and show that change can be compatible with one’s identity (Sparkman & Walton, 2019). Thus far, Sparkman and Walton (2017; 2019) have provided evidence that dynamic norms strengthen the social norms approach in several domains, such as sustainable behaviors, health behaviors, and men’s identification as feminists. The present research aims to extend this dynamic norm research to sexual assault prevention. One avenue through which sexual assault prevalence can be reduced is by increasing bystander action in sexual risk contexts. A sample of all genders from Amazons Mechanical Turk will be assigned to one of three norm conditions (dynamic v. static v. control) in which the norms apply to bystander intervention in sexual risk scenarios. Intent to intervene and possible mechanisms will be assessed.

An emerging body of research demonstrates that dynamic norms, information about how norms are changing over time, may have positive effects above and beyond static norms, information about the prevalence of behaviors and attitudes at the current time (Sparkman & Walton, 2017). Dynamic norms promote self-efficacy, communicate that the change is important to others, and show that change can be compatible with one’s identity (Sparkman & Walton, 2019). Thus far, Sparkman and Walton (2017; 2019) have provided evidence that dynamic norms strengthen the social norms approach in several domains, such as sustainable behaviors, health behaviors, and men’s identification as feminists. The present research aims to extend this dynamic norm research to sexual assault prevention by correcting misperceptions about consensual sexual behavior among perpetrators. A sample of college-aged men from the University of Nebraska-Lincoln will be assigned to one of three norm conditions (dynamic v. static v. control) about the prevalence of respecting your partner’s wishes when they hesitate during sexual activity. Intent to stop sexual activity and possible mechanisms will be assessed.

Open online communities rely on social norms for behavior regulation, group cohesion, and sustainability. Research on the role of social norms online has mainly focused on one source of influence at a time, making it difficult to separate different normative influences and understand their interactions. In this study, we use the Focus Theory to examine interactions between several sources of normative influence in a Wikipedia sub-community: local descriptive norms, local injunctive norms, and norms imported from similar sub-communities. We find that exposure to injunctive norms has a stronger effect than descriptive norms, that the likelihood of performing a behavior is higher when both injunctive and descriptive norms are congruent, and that conflicting social norms may negatively impact pro-normative behavior. We contextualize these findings through member interviews, and discuss their implications for both future research on normative influence in online groups and the design of systems that support open collaboration.

E-cigarette use among college students is increasing. In the era of COVID-19, such usage is especially dangerous given that the virus can be deadly for those with impaired respiratory systems. A small but growing body of research suggests that social norms may predict e-cigarette use. However, one's perception of e-cigarette use behaviors (descriptive norms) and approval by peers (injunctive norms) have yet to be studied in college students. The overarching purpose of this study is to determine whether descriptive and injunctive norms for e-cigarette use contribute unique variance to past 30-day e-cigarette use.

Nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) is a major public health concern. Web-based personalized feedback interventions (PFIs) may be a cost-effective and efficient way to treat NSSI. In order to develop a PFI, it is imperative to assess descriptive and injunctive norms. The current study examines descriptive and injunctive norms of NSSI within college students and adults in the community, comparing how perceived norms may differ for those who do or do not engage in NSSI. Study 1 calculated percentages of NSSI behavior within the student sample. Study 2 then examined perceived descriptive and injunctive norms between those with and without history of NSSI in both samples. Study 1 indicated that 19% of undergraduate students had histories of NSSI. Additionally, there was a general tendency to overestimate the percentage of people who engage in NSSI and the number of times a typical person engages in NSSI. Finally, those who engaged in NSSI believed that most people do not understand why individuals engage in NSSI; comparatively, the majority of people without history of NSSI still indicated that they understand why others would engage in NSSI. These research findings may be utilized in a PFI to reduce shame and NSSI behavior.

The paper studies tax evasion in an evolutionary setting. In addition to standard variables such as the fine individuals may have to pay if found guilty or the probability of being audited, agents' inclination to engage in tax evasion may also be affected by social interactions. Moreover, expected payoffs may include reputational costs or rewards awarded by society after an individual is audited. The paper shows how (i) social norms may play a very important role in defining the long-run evolution of tax evasion and, consequently, that (ii) policymakers should consider reforms that would increase social awareness and information rather than more (financially and politically) expensive traditional auditing instruments; in addition, (iii) fiscal/auditing policies should be carefully tailored to the particular economic and social setting in place in a country. Web of Science 89 4 405 385

Background: Cannabis use rates are rising among college students, creating a need for effective and accessible intervention options. One such intervention, the Marijuana eCHECKUP TO GO (eCTG) program, has relatively few studies investigating mechanisms of change and related outcomes. This intervention provides users with personalized normative feedback to adjust user's normative perceptions and use patterns. The current study tested moderated mediation of program effects between the eCTG intervention condition and a healthy stress management (HSM) control condition in a college student sample of near-daily cannabis users. Protective behavioral strategies (PBS) were measured among the eCTG conditionMethods: Data were analyzed from a sample of 227 students who were randomly assigned to the eCTG intervention condition or HSM control condition. Change in cannabis use frequency was measured by re-administering the baseline survey at a six-week follow-up. Multi-group moderated mediation path analysis tested the effects of the eCTG intervention on change in cannabis use frequency through PBS, descriptive norms, and injunctive norms, with multi-group categories defined by sex.Results: Direct effects indicated the intervention predicted reduced descriptive norm perceptions and cannabis use frequency. An indirect effect was found for the intervention condition on reducing cannabis use frequency through change in descriptive norms in males. Similarly, an indirect effect was seen for intervention condition on reducing cannabis use frequency through change in injunctive norms for females.Conclusions: Findings suggest changes in descriptive norms played a sex-specific mediating role in the mechanisms of change for the eCTG intervention on reductions in cannabis use frequency.

Purpose Guided by a synthesis of social norms theory (SNT), the social identity model of deindividuation effects (SIDE) and information cascades theory (ICT), this study aims to unveil the mechanism underlying the role of social norms in shaping consumer responses to woke advertising in the algorithmic social media environment. Design/methodology/approach This paper analyzed 125,481 unique comments on a woke campaign, which represented the dynamic social norms condition in which the prominence of popularity information sets a social norm that can be passed on through a sequential commenting process. Also, this paper conducted an experiment with two conditions, namely, static social norms condition, representing a situation in which the prominence of popularity information sets a social norm through a non-sequential commenting process; without social norms condition, epitomizing the situation in which there is no popularity information that can set a social norm. Findings The results revealed that when evaluating a social media-based woke ad, depersonalized consumers in a dynamic social norms condition were more likely to be influenced by the prevailing norms than those in a static social norms condition were. Originality/value Through the lens of ICT, this research extends SNT and SIDE by detailing the procedure regarding how perceived social norms shape the formation of consumer opinions in a sequential fashion.

Įvadas. Socialinių normų teorija pagrįstų intervencijų efektyvumo mažinant studentų alkoholio vartojimą tyrimų rezultatai prieštaringi. Manoma, kad šios intervencijos veiksmingai mažina rizikingų vartotojų alkoholio vartojimą, tačiau gali skatinti mažiau ir rečiau už referentinės grupės narius alkoholio vartojančių asmenų vartojimą. Tyrimo tikslas – išsiaiškinti 1) galimą neigiamą normatyvinio grįžtamojo ryšio, perteikiančio realius alkoholio vartojimo rodiklius (aprašomosios normos poveikis), poveikį mažiau už referentinės grupės vidurkį vartojančių alkoholio studentų ketinimams jo vartoti; 2) ar grįžtamojo ryšio pateikiama informacija apie alkoholio vartojimo priimtinumą referentinėje grupėje (įsakomosios normos poveikis) gali apsaugoti nuo minėto neigiamo poveikio. Metodai. Studentų alkoholio vartojimo ir požiūrio į bendraamžių vartojimą rodikliai buvo surinkti apklausiant 234 universiteto studentus. Iš jų eksperimente dalyvavo 26 mažiau ir rečiau už visų apklaustų studentų vidurkį alkoholio vartojantys studentai. Intervenciją sudarė normatyvinio grįžtamojo ryšio, perteikiančio studentų alkoholio vartojimą ir požiūrį į bendraamžių vartojimą, pristatymas. Rezultatai. Aprašomosios normos poveikį patyrę tyrimo dalyviai spiritinius gėrimus nurodė ketinantys vartoti didesniais kiekiais nei šio poveikio nepatyrę tyrimo dalyviai. Ketinimai suvartoti daugiau spiritinių gėrimų patyrus įsakomosios normos poveikį nesumažėjo. Išvados. Aprašomosios normos poveikio taikymas gali sustiprinti mažiau už referentinės grupės narius vartojančių studentų ketinimus vartoti spiritinius gėrimus didesniais kiekiais. Įsakomosios normos poveikis, kaip priemonė eliminuoti šį neigiamą efektą, galbūt nėra veiksmingas. Background. Social norms theory-based interventions have been widely used to reduce alcohol consumption among college and university students. Lately, it has been argued that such interventions may actually increase alcohol use among light drinkers. However, little studies have been focused on testing this possible negative effect. Objectives. The aim of this study was to examine the possible negative impact of descriptive normative feedback (DNF) on drinking intentions among students whose baseline drinking scores were below the average of a reference group. We also studied the preventive effect of injunctive normative feedback (INF). Methods. Actual descriptive and injunctive norms were collected from 234 university students. From those who reported drinking below the norm, 26 were randomly assigned to a control or intervention condition that received normative feedback via PowerPoint presentations over two meetings. Results. DNF increased students’ intentions of spirits drinking frequency and quantity. Meanwhile intentions to drink beer, cider, wine and cocktails remained the same. Increased intentions to drink spirits were not reduced by INF. Conclusions. Findings suggest that DNF-based interventions might negatively affect the use of spirits among those students who consume less than their peer norm by increasing their intentions to drink spirits more often and in larger quantities. Ways other than the INF to prevent this negative effect need to be further explored.

Social norms positively predict college students' alcohol use, but it is critical to explore heterogeneity in these patterns to identify which students are most susceptible to normative influences. The current study explored the nature of drinking norms within college student peer sport clubs. We examined the association between self-reported alcohol use (i.e., number of drinks in a typical week) and perceived descriptive/injunctive norms as an indicator of norm adherence and then tested moderating effects of social constructs related to the group: Social identification with one's team, along with social network-derived indices of indegree centrality and network density. We sampled members of 35 intact college club sport teams at 3 timepoints across the school year (N = 1,054; 61% female). Multilevel modeling was employed to estimate moderating effects at within-person, between-person, and between-groups levels. Initial analyses revealed that perceived group norms predicted self-reported alcohol use, and that teams approached consensus on the groups' drinking norms over time. Several significant time-varying moderation patterns were uncovered. At timepoints when students identified more strongly with their team (relative to person-mean levels), they more readily adhered to perceived descriptive and injunctive team drinking norms. Students also adhered more closely to these perceived team drinking norms at timepoints when students were nominated as having relatively lower indegree centrality. Cross-level interactions revealed that neither network density nor team sex moderated these associations. Taken together, the current findings advance our understanding of group processes that may produce more salient social influences on students' alcohol use behaviors within proximal peer groups. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

We consider the potential for inspirational media content (inspiring videos about dogs) and injunctive norms (social media comments on the videos) to motivate dog adoption behaviors and intentions. In an online experiment, participants were exposed to pretested inspiring (or non-inspiring) videos and social norms cues and were given an opportunity to browse among a series of dogs on a mock adoption website. Participants also indicated their intention to adopt a dog and completed a series of socio-demographic measures. Results indicated that, although both the inspiring videos and the norm cues successfully induced inspiration and perceived injunctive norms, only injunctive norms significantly affected intention to adopt. The effect of norms remained significant when controlling for barriers to adoption such as financial, time, and space considerations. Discussion focuses on implications for inspiring entertainment and social norms theories, and implications for adoptions and other prosocial behaviors.

Objectives This study addresses a need for quantitative research examining factors supporting the frequent use of homophobic language (e.g., fag) in male team sports which has a range of negative health impacts on gay and bisexual males. Intervention methods are needed to stop this behaviour, but little is known about why this language remains common. Design Cross-Sectional survey. Method Male Rugby Union (n = 97; ages 16 -18 years) and Ice Hockey players (n = 146; ages 16 - 31 years) self-reported their use of homophobic language and completed measures of homophobic attitudes and descriptive and injunctive norms related to language use on their team. Bivariate and multivariate analyses examined factors associated with this behaviour. Results Over half of participants (53.8%) self-reported using homophobic language at least once in the previous two weeks. No relationship was found between homophobic attitudes and language use. In contrast, norm measures had a strong, positive relationship with this behaviour. In multivariate analyses, norms uniquely accounted for almost one-half of the variance in language use. The addition of descriptive norms into the full model led to the largest increase in R2 of .340 (F(1,200) = 130.816, p Conclusions Homophobic language use was related to norms, rather than homophobic attitudes. Interventions targeting changes to these norms could be an effective method to change this behaviour. This finding contributes to a growing body of evidence that norms are associated with a range of negative behaviours by male athletes.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of the Escalation Workshop with a sample of US Navy sailors. Escalation is a one-session workshop designed to promote bystander behavior related to dating abuse. We conducted a two-arm RCT with follow-up at 4 and 8 months. Participants were 335 Navy sailors, recruited from two comparable ships based in the USA. The unit of randomization was the ship. The primary outcomes were as follows: (a) attitudes related to intervening as a bystander in dating abuse situations, (b) injunctive norms about dating abuse, (c) dating abuse-related prevention-oriented behaviors (e.g., such as posting dating violence prevention messages online), and (d) bystander behaviors including acting as a bystander to prevent peer self-harm, peer bullying, peer intoxication, or peer dating abuse, or being a proactive bystander and initiating conversations about dating abuse prevention with friends and others. Hierarchal linear models (HLMs) indicated that, compared to participants in the control group, participants in the intervention group demonstrated improvement in attitudes [β = .09, p

Problematic social media use has increasingly become an issue in schools and companies. Individuals often attempt to reduce their problematic use, but some may not be successful. This implies that ...

BackgroundYoung people with eating disorders (EDs) and ED symptoms are at risk during university adjustment, suggesting a need to protect their health. The social identity approach proposes that people’s social connections – and the identity-related behaviour they derive from them – are important for promoting positive health outcomes. However, there is a limited understanding as to how meaningful everyday connections, supported by affiliative identities, may act to reduce ED symptoms during a life transition.MethodsTwo hundred eighty-one first year university students with an ED or ED symptoms completed an online survey during the first month of university. Participants completed self-reported measures of affiliative identity, social support, injunctive norms and ED symptoms. Path analysis was used to test a hypothesised mediated model, whereby affiliative identity has a significant indirect relation with ED symptoms via social support and injunctive norms.ResultsResults support the hypothesised model. We show that affiliative identity predicts lower self-reported ED symptoms, because of its relation with social support and injunctive norms.ConclusionsThe findings imply that affiliative identities have a positive impact on ED symptoms during university adjustment, because the social support derived from affiliative identity is associated with how people perceive norms around disordered eating. Our discussion emphasises the possibility of identity processes being a social cure for those at risk of ED symptoms.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Social norms towards smoking are a key concept in tobacco control policy and research. However, the influence and strength of different types of social norms on youth smoking uptake is unclear. This study aimed to examine, quantify and compare evidence of the longitudinal associations between different types of social norms towards smoking and youth smoking uptake (initiation and escalation). METHODS: Systematic review searching four databases (MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsycInfo, CINAHL) from January 1998 to October 2020. Evidence synthesis via narrative review, meta-analysis pooling unadjusted associations (initiation only, due to heterogeneity in escalation outcomes) and meta-regression comparing effect sizes by norm type and study characteristics. Studies included observational prospective cohort studies using survey methodology with youth aged ≤24 years. Measurements included longitudinal associations between descriptive norms (perceived smoking behaviour) and injunctive norms (perceived approval/disapproval of smoking) among social network(s) and subsequent smoking initiation or escalation. RESULTS: Thirty articles were identified. In the narrative review, smoking initiation (but not escalation) was consistently predicted by two norms: parental and close friend smoking. Associations between smoking uptake and other descriptive norms (smoking among siblings, family/household, partner, peers, adults) and all injunctive norms (perceived approval of smoking among parents, siblings, close friends/peers, partner, teachers, people important to you, the public) were less consistent or inconclusive. In the meta-analysis pooling unadjusted associations, 17 articles were included (n = 27 767). Smoking initiation was predicted by the following descriptive norms: smoking among parents [Odds Ratio (OR) = 1.88, 95% Confidence Interval (CI) = 1.56-2.28], close friends (OR = 2.53, 95% CI = 1.99-3.23), siblings (OR = 2.44, 95% CI = 1.93-3.08), family/household (OR = 1.55, 95% CI = 1.36-1.76) and adults (OR = 1.34, 95% CI = 1.02-1.75), but not peers (OR = 1.14, 95% CI = 0.92-1.42). Smoking initiation was also predicted by two injunctive norms, perceived approval of smoking among parents (OR = 1.74, 95% CI = 1.27-2.38) and the public (OR = 4.57, 95% CI = 3.21-6.49), but not close friends/peers (OR = 2.36, 95% CI = 0.86-6.53) or people important to the individual (OR = 1.24, 95% CI = 0.98-1.58). CONCLUSIONS: In this systematic review (narrative and meta-analysis), descriptive norms of parents' and close friends' smoking behaviour appeared to be consistent predictors of youth smoking initiation, more so than the descriptive norms of more distal social networks and injunctive norms.

Breastfeeding has many known benefits, but rates vary globally. We propose two main reasons why psychological theory and interventions have not been successful to date in explaining breastfeeding behaviours. Specifically, prior research underestimates the importance of (1) specific emotions and (2) wider injunctive influences (i.e., societal and moral norms about what women feel they ought to be doing) in the breastfeeding experience. Therefore, we conducted a systematic review of quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods studies that explored whether injunctive norms and/ or specific emotions are associated with breastfeeding behaviours (i.e., intentions, initiation and duration). Seventy-two papers were included in this review; data were extracted and quality appraisals conducted for all included studies. A meta-analysis of effect sizes was performed with the quantitative data. A convergent qualitative synthesis of the data was conducted, resulting in the following line of argument: Breastfeeding is a social behaviour and not a personal/individual behaviour. From this line of argument, three themes with associated sub-themes were developed, highlighting the importance of both specific emotions and injunctive norms on breastfeeding behaviours. These influences are discussed in relation to both theoretical and practical implications, as well as future research.

Despite evidence that a majority of people in the United States say that they want more civil politics, candidates still use incivility strategically during campaigns. Distinguishing between descriptive and injunctive norms may help explain this apparent contradiction. This study presents an experiment conducted with participants recruited at 2020 Democratic Iowa Caucus rallies that tested whether (a) individuals differ in their descriptive and injunctive normative beliefs about a variety of uncivil behaviors and (b) candidate characteristics such as gender and insider/outsider status in a party influence respondents’ normative beliefs. Findings suggest that, while descriptive and injunctive norms align for some campaign behaviors, they do not for all behaviors, such as sharing false information and using insults. Additionally, men and women candidates, as well as political insider and outsider candidates, are expected to behave differently but are held to the same injunctively normative standard when uncivil behaviors are attributed to them. Future incivility researchers should continue investigating descriptive and injunctive norms to investigate whether voters dismiss descriptively common behaviors during campaigns, even if they perceive those behaviors as inappropriate and uncivil.

In a lab-in-the-field experiment, we study how the pro-social behavior of inhabitants of an impoverished neighborhood in Namibia is influenced after being informed about the pro-social or egoistic behavior of either a rich or a poor comparison group. We find that the poor behave significantly less prosocial when they learn about the egoistic behavior of the rich. Yet, neither the rich's pro-social behavior nor information on how other poor individuals behaved affects the poor's behavior. This contagion effect is not simply driven by imitating the behavior of the comparison group, or by social identity concerns or peer pressure. Instead, our data suggest that the poor's drop in pro-social behavior is caused by the violation of a social justice norm: The poor expect the rich to be pro-social and they are surprised if they act differently. Learning about the rich's egoism even makes participants’ beliefs about what should be done (injunctive norms) significantly more egoistic. Hence, the self-serving behavior of the rich causes a double damage: Society not only suffers from their low pro-sociality but also from a spread of egoism among other members of society.

Student expectations of required workload, behaviour, resource use, role and relationship profoundly shape success in higher education and inform satisfaction with their learning experience. Teachers’ expectations of students’ behaviour can similarly affect the university learning experience and environment. When expectations between academic staff and students are not aligned, student satisfaction and staff morale are likely to suffer. This study sought to identify areas where the academic expectations of students and staff aligned or diverged and understand responses to any breaches of expectations. Here, we report on qualitative findings from a survey of 259 undergraduate students and 48 staff members and focus group interviews with 10 students and 15 staff members. Although their academic expectations aligned in most areas, students appeared to have broader conceptions of success at university than staff, and a stronger focus on the importance of personal relationships with staff and teaching quality. Academics expressed stronger injunctive norms about prioritisation of study and the importance of identifying as a student. These differences are likely to lead to tension between the two groups, particularly in areas of value for individuals. While clarifying expectations may improve alignment between the groups to some extent, the basis of these differences in individual priorities suggests that merely articulating expectations may not resolve the issue. We therefore argue for staff to adopt a co-creation approach to academic expectations and to ‘meet students halfway’ where possible.

Research Question/Issue Social norms theory suggests that people voluntarily defend social norms even when their economic interests are not directly affected by norm violations. On the basis of this theory, we posit that when managers seek personal gains at the expense of shareholders, independent directors may be motivated by social norms for fairness to prevent unfair outcomes. We conducted an experiment to investigate the roles of social norms for fairness in a board wherein insiders and uninformed independent directors simultaneously voted in favor of or against a project with either good or bad quality. Research Findings/Insights Independent directors who valued higher levels of fairness norms were less likely to vote in favor of the project. This negative relationship was higher when insiders had poor reputations. However, insiders were inclined to vote in favor of the project, regardless of project quality. Furthermore, fairness norms had a double‐edged effect on board performance, which was dependent on project quality. Theoretical/Academic Implications We adapt social norms theory to the board voting scene with features of group decision‐making and information asymmetry. We find that fairness norms may motivate independent directors to vote against the project. However, the norm heterogeneity of independent directors greatly reduces their bargaining power with insiders, which suggests that monitoring independent directors who are driven by fairness norms has little effect on the voting behavior of insiders. Practitioner/Policy Implications For regulators and firms, we suggest that fairness norms should be treated as a two‐edged sword. The brightness (or darkness) of social norms depends on the trade‐off between gained fairness and loss of board performance. Governance mechanisms that can reduce information asymmetry and norm heterogeneity of independent directors may help maintain fairness in the board while reducing its negative effect on board performance.

Daily carrying of heavy loads of domestic water, especially during pregnancy and postpartum, bears a threat to maternal health in low-income countries. Using an extended health action process approach (HAPA), we examined women's reasons for and psychosocial determinants of safe water-carrying during pregnancy and postpartum. In a mixed-methods study, trained local interviewers conducted 1001 quantitative interviews with women of reproductive age (n = 921 analyzed) and 21 qualitative interviews with women of reproductive age, in-laws, and spouses in rural Nepal. We analyzed the quantitative data with generalized estimating equations to model the HAPA-based psychosocial determinants of avoiding water-carrying during pregnancy and postpartum. Subjective perspectives were investigated with thematic analysis. Outcome expectancies (B = 0.24), self-efficacy (B = 0.20), and injunctive norms (B = 0.23) were significantly associated with the intention to avoid water-carrying. Self-efficacy (B = 0.36) and instrumental support (B = 0.05) are related to behavior (all p

Background: Research suggests that adolescent student-athletes are at heightened risk for alcohol consumption. The identification of unique, modifiable risk factors for alcohol use in this population is needed. Purpose/Objectives: Building on previous work highlighting the importance of each of athlete-specific drinking motives and alcohol expectancies, this study investigated whether athlete-specific psychosocial predictors optimize our ability to predict adolescent athlete alcohol consumption after accounting for general psychosocial predictors. Methods: Participants were 352 current high school student-athletes who completed a self-report questionnaire about their alcohol use attitudes, behaviors, and cognitions. Results: Hierarchical regression revealed that among the total sample, gender, class year, liquid courage/sociability, sexuality, and negative alcohol expectancies, and negative athletic-functioning alcohol expectancies predicted alcohol consumption. Among lifetime drinkers, gender, class year, enhancement motives, conformity motives (negative), negative athlete-functioning alcohol expectancies, and sport-related coping motives predicted alcohol consumption. Conclusions/Importance: Negative athletic-functioning alcohol expectancies and sport-related coping motives emerged as important, athlete-specific predictors of adolescent athlete alcohol use. These factors provide important opportunities for targeted prevention efforts.

In the minds of members of society, social norms can exist in various forms. In their most general form, they are logical rules if, then. The theoretical framework most often used to study social norms is the focus theory of normative conduct which divides this logical rule into two types of norms - descriptive (the majority does this) and injunctive (I should do this). It is not known which of these three possible forms prevails (is most common or fundamental) in the minds of members of society, and this question should be answered empirically, for instance, by measuring the time of reaction to different descriptions of a social norm. If the description corresponds to the cognitive form of the norm, the reaction should be faster, since it takes less time and resources to compare and interpret wordings. The article presents the results of an experimental study of the cognitive accessibility of social norms in mass survey based on the method of split-ballot which implies the presentation of different versions of the questionnaire to randomly selected subsamples. The survey consisted of 10 questions about attitudes to social norms in a particular situation: half of situations described a common norm, half - a violation of the norm. Each situation was described in three ways: implication (if, then), common behavior, and imperative. The main measured variable was not the answers but the time for providing them. The results showed no statistically significant differences in timing of reactions to different forms of situation descriptions. Thus, the main result of the study is that three possible cognitive forms of social norms turn out to be equal, with no signs of prevalence or greater fundamentality. This can be explained in two ways: first, each cognitive form can use its own independent mechanism of actualization; second, the true cognitive form can differ from all three (for example, a non-verbal representation of actions). The choice between these two explanations requires further research.

Purpose This paper aims to examine the exogenous effects of experiential attitude toward green (EAG), instrumental attitude toward green (IAG), injunctive norms on green (ING), descriptive norms about green (DNG), green perceived control (GPC) and green self-efficacy (GSE) on green purchase intention (GPI). Moreover, this paper also investigates the causal factors of green purchase behavior (GPB) considering green knowledge (GK), the salience of green behavior (SGB), environmental constraints (ECPG) and green habit (GH). Design/methodology/approach The research model was adopted to measure the green behavior of Bangladeshi consumers using an integrated behavior model (IBM). The data were randomly collected from 372 respondents and partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) approach was used to test the hypotheses. Findings PLS results imply that all independent variables (EAG; IAG; ING; DNG; GPC and GSE) impact GPI; and SGB, GH and GPI influence GPB. On the other hand, GK and ECPG have no significant effect on GPB. Research limitations/implications There may present a gap in the outcomes of the study to signify the generalizability because the survey was conducted in some cities of Bangladesh which may not represent the country as a whole. Practical implications This study anticipates the cause-effect relationship between GPI, GPB and their determinants. The results of the study can help marketers understand green consumer behavior and design appropriate strategies and tactics for new marketing challenges. Originality/value This research investigates green purchase behavior in a developing country. It empirically confirms the validity of IBM in assessing green behavior, especially for Bangladesh, a booming economy and suitable for investment. Although ample research explored green purchase behavior, green habit and saliency have not been considered in measuring green purchase behavior.

Purpose: Several theoretical frameworks postulate that perceptions about social normative information could modify personal attitudes and behavior. The current experiment applied priming methodolog...