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Problem: The self-theory is an important construct related to mental health and adaptive functioning and is distinct from self-esteem or self-efficacy. However. no instrument exists to assess one's self-theory. Thus, [...]

The Adult Trait Hope Scale (Snyder et al., 1991) typically has been administered to samples of college students, and previous researchers have not explored key demographic variables. In a large sample of community persons who were not in college (N = 215), significant differences were detected in Hope Scale scores across differing age groups and marital status. Specifically, hope was lower for the older cohort (age 54-65) and for those who were separated, divorced, or widowed. Comparative results between Hope and Satisfaction with Life measures indicate somewhat similar outcomes, except with age. These findings are discussed., A myriad of factors can contribute to whether or not individuals perceive that they are satisfied with their lives. Pavot and Diener (1993) identified two components, affective and cognitive. Bailey, [...]

We report findings from an initial empirical test of a hope-based, group therapy protocol. In this context, hope is defined as a cognitive process through which individuals pursue their goals [Snyder, C. R.: 1994, Free Press, New York]. As such, the eight-session group treatment emphasized building goal-pursuit skills. Findings from a randomized, wait-list control trial using a community sample (n = 32 completers) are reported. Participants underwent structured diagnostic interviews (SCID-I) and completed assessment packets. Post-participation assessment results indicate the intervention was associated with statistically significant (p < 0.05) improvements in the agency component of hope, life meaning, and self-esteem as well as reductions in symptoms of depression and anxiety. These results suggest that a brief hope intervention can increase some psychological strengths and reduce some symptoms of psychopathology.

Borrowing from B. A. Wright's (1991) suggestions, a balanced approach is advocated for gathering information and writing the subsequent report. Specifically, it is suggested that the clinician attend to four aspects of an interviewee: (a) the strengths in the client's psychological makeup, (b) the weaknesses in the client's psychological makeup, (c) the strengths in the client's environment, and (d) the weaknesses in the client's environment. Additionally, using hope theory (C. R. Snyder, 1994) as a framework, the importance of including information about client goals, along with the routes to those goals (pathways thinking) and the motivation to use those pathways (agency thinking), is described. Furthermore, the implications of using this framework in conducting a diagnostic interview and writing the ensuing report are provided. Finally, the advantages of including human strengths to achieve a balanced interview and report are discussed. Keywords: psychological assessments; client reports; report writing; balanced assessment approach; hope theory; positive psychology

Clinical psychology is positioned to play key roles in mental and physical health issues of 21st century America. In this regard, however, the present Boulder model of educating clinical psychologists is not preparing our graduates to meet the diverse demands of either today's or tomorrow's marketplaces. Accordingly. we introduce a new, four level 'matrix model' for the education of future clinical psychologists. The core focus of the proposed matrix model is on the weaknesses and strengths of people in their personalities and their environments. Moreover, this matrix model operates at the individual, interpersonal, institutional, and societal-community levels of analyses. The details and implications of this proposed educational curriculum are described. Keywords: Boulder model: clinical psychology graduate education; four level matrix model

The relationships between hope, bereavement-related rumination, and finding meaning (making sense and benefit finding) were examined in 158 college students who experienced the death of a loved one within the latter half of their lives. Greater rumination was related significantly to lessened psychological well-being, and it mediated the relationship between being able to make sense of the death and superior well-being. Finding benefits in bereavement was associated with positive adjustment for those who recently experienced the death of a loved one, whereas it was related to negative adjustment for those who experienced the death longer ago. Higher hope predicted greater well-being, but it was not related to rumination or finding meaning.

A cognitive, motivational theory is introduced to the educational research community. Hope theory integrates the conceptualization of goals, along with the strategies to achieve those goals (pathways), and the motivation to pursue those goals (agency). In a 6-year longitudinal study, individual differences in hope, as measured by the Hope Scale (C. R. Snyder et al., 1991) scores of entering college freshmen, predicted better overall grade point averages even after controlling for variance related to entrance examination scores. High- relative to the low-hope students also were more likely to have graduated and not to have been dismissed over this 6-year period. Hopeful thinking in college academics is discussed, along with the contributions of hope theory for educational research and practice.

'False' hope is condemned in the literature on the grounds that it reflects the counterproductive use of: (a) expectations based on illusions rather than reality, (b) inappropriate goals, and (c) poor strategies to reach desired goals. Snyder, Harris, et al.'s (1991) hope theory involving self-referential thoughts about finding routes to desired goals (pathways) and the motivation to use those routes (agency) is used as a framework for examining these three criticisms of false hope. It is concluded that the presently available evidence does not support any of the false-hope criticisms. The implications of hope-related issues for the applied clinical arena are discussed. Keywords: hope; agency; pathways; goals; illusions

Throughout their school years, students are faced with array of increasingly important and difficult choices. These range from deciding what to do for the elementary school science fair and whom [...]

In 1998, Onwuegbuzie reported a negative relationship between scores on hope and anxiety about statistics among graduate students who were enrolled in statistics classes. In 1999, Snyder posited that hope theory provides a useful framework for assessing students' coping strategies. In support of the utility of hope theory for identifying students with debilitating test-related anxieties, lower scores on the Pathways and Agency subscales which assess hope were related to 87 graduate students' problematic coping strategies for studying and taking statistics examinations. After a brief review of other recent data linking hope to academic performance at both public school and college levels, further research seems appropriate.

The relations of dispositional hope to various self-reported cancer-related coping activities were examined in 115 college women. Dispositionally high- as compared to low-hope women were more knowledgeable about cancer, and this relationship remained when the shared variances due to previous academic achievement, experience with cancer among family or friends, and positive and negative affectivity were removed. Additionally, high- as compared to low-hope women reported more hope-related coping responses in four separate imagined phases of cancer (prevention/risk, detection, temporal course, and impact), and these relationships remained when shared variances related to previous academic achievement, knowledge about cancer, experience with cancer, and negative affectivity were removed. Hope is discussed as means of maintaining a 'fighting spirit' for coping with cancer.

Hope is the sum of goal thoughts as tapped by pathways and agency. Pathways reflect the perceived capability to produce goal routes; agency reflects the perception that one can initiate action along these pathways. Using trait and state hope scales, studies explored hope in college student athletes. In Study 1, male and female athletes were higher in trait hope than nonathletes; moreover, hope significantly predicted semester grade averages beyond cumulative grade point average and overall self-worth. In Study 2, with female cross-country athletes, trait hope predicted athletic outcomes; further, weekly state hope tended to predict athletic outcomes beyond dispositional hope, training, and self-esteem, confidence, and mood. In Study 3, with female track athletes, dispositional hope significantly predicted athletic outcomes beyond variance related to athletic abilities and affectivity; moreover, athletes had higher hope than nonathletes.

The theme of this issue involves the apparent conflicts that sometimes arise between counseling and social psychology and, more importantly, their possible remedies. The points made in the previous articles are compelling to me, and as such I will move on to different issues in this article., There is a need to train psychologists who are versed in both counseling/clinical psychology and social psychology. These psychologists would be at the forefront of the interface between the two fields, providing the link that will hopefully erase the conflicts that have occurred between the two branches of psychology. The merging of social psychology theory and research with applied counseling skills into a breed of psychologists can be accomplished with psychology curricula that incorporate the best of both fields.

Eighty-nine early adolescents were measured for perceptions of hope, exposure to violence, and perceived vulnerability to victimization. Results showed the presence of high hope, together with a high degree of exposure to violence. The adolescents were about equally divided regarding the nature of their own death, while most predicted a violent death for the 'average American.' The highest levels of hope were reported by those who had witnessed violence but not experienced it personally; those with the greatest exposure to violence predicted their own death would be violent.

Defining hope as a cognitive set comprising agency (belief in one's capacity to initiate and sustain actions) and pathways (belief in one's capacity to generate routes) to reach goals, the Hope Scale was developed and validated previously as a dispositional self-report measure of hope (Snyder et al., 1991). The present 4 studies were designed to develop and validate a measure of state hope. The 6-item State Hope Scale is internally consistent and reflects the theorized agency and pathways components. The relationships of the State Hope Scale to other measures demonstrate concurrent and discriminant validity; moreover, the scale is responsive to events in the lives of people as evidenced by data gathered through both correlational and causal designs. The State Hope Scale offers a brief, internally consistent, and valid self-report measure of ongoing goal-directed thinking that may be useful to researchers and applied professionals.

To further test role constraint and socialization theories of gender differences in coping, two studies were conducted to examine coping strategies in individuals occupying similar roles. The relations between coping strategy frequency and effectiveness and between coping strategy use and psychological functioning also were examined. Predominantly Caucasian female and male college students participated in the studies. Results indicated support for both socialization and role constraint theories. Effectiveness and frequency of coping strategy use were moderately correlated. Gender differences in cognitive appraisal varied with dispositional vs. situational assessment. The need for a more integrated model to explain gender differences in coping and implications for existing theories are discussed.

Defining hope as a cognitive set that is composed of a reciprocally derived sense of successful (a) agency (goal-directed determination) and (b) pathways (planning of ways to meet goals), an individual-differences measure is developed. Studies demonstrate acceptable internal consistency and test-retest reliability, and the factor structure identifies the agency and pathways components of the Hope Scale. Convergent and discriminant validity are documented, along with evidence suggesting that Hope Scale scores augmented the prediction of goal-related activities and coping strategies beyond other self-report measures. Construct validational support is provided in regard to predicted goal-setting behaviors; moreover, the hypothesized goal appraisal that accompany the various levels of hope are corroborated.

Commentary writers vary in their agreement with the ideas presented in the C.R. Snyder and T.R. Elliott lead article (this issue, pp 1033-1054), but they share the view that clinical-counseling psychology already is in the midst of an evolution. There are two general camps to such commentaries. First, there are those who caution us to move slowly and carefully as we respond to the change-inducing forces. Second, there are those who see this time as one in which we should make bold moves in our field in response to the societal forces that we are encountering. We suggest that the lightning rod for potential changes in the field of clinical-counseling psychology must be a shared emphasis on our scientific heritage. Keywords: clinical--counseling psychology

Based on Onwuegbuzie's 1998 findings pertaining to the relationship of lower scores on hope to higher ones on anxiety about statistics, a brief overview of the etiology of test-related anxieties in the context of Snyder's hope theory is given, and the utility of hope theory for helping students with test-related anxieties is explored.

Ascertained whether diagnostic feedback had a positive influence on treatment outcome. Snake-fearful females took psychological tests and were randomly assigned to treatment conditions. The greatest therapeutic improvement resulted for the enhanced-personality-feedback-with-treatment group as compared to the treatment-only group. The treatment-only group improved more than the no-treatment control group. (Author)