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A series of β -cyclodextrin ( β -CD)-conjugates were prepared by combining three abietane-type diterpene acids with two azide-functionalized β -CDs via click chemistry, and the antiviral activity against wild-type and omicron SARS-CoV-2 spike pseudovirus as well as the antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli were investigated. All the synthesised conjugates exhibited no significant cytotoxicity to BHK-21-hACE2 cells with cell viability over 80% at concentration of 15  µ M. Among the conjugates, the heptavalent β -CD-dehydroabietic acid conjugate 6b exhibited higher anti-SARS-CoV-2 activity against the omicron variant compared to the other conjugates. This study suggested that the multivalent diterpene acid derivatives may have potential application against coronaviruses as entry inhibitors.

It was recently found that not only tool-specialized New Caledonian crows, but also Goffin cockatoos can manufacture physical objects in accordance with a mental template. That is, they can emulate features of existing objects when they manufacture new items. Both species spontaneously ripped pieces of card into large strips if they had previously learned that a large template was rewarded, and small strips when they previously learned that a small template was rewarded. Among New Caledonian crows, this cognitive ability was suggested as a potential mechanism underlying the transmission of natural tool designs. Here, we tested for the same ability in another non-specialised tool user-Hooded crows (Corvus cornix). Crows were exposed to pre-made template objects, varying first in colour and then in size, and were rewarded only if they chose pre-made objects that matched the template. In subsequent tests, birds were given the opportunity to manufacture versions of these objects. All three crows ripped paper pieces from the same colour material as the rewarded template, and, crucially, also manufactured objects that were more similar in size to previously rewarded, than unrewarded, templates, despite the birds being rewarded at random in both tests. Therefore, we found the ability to manufacture physical objects relative to a mental template in yet another bird species not specialized in using or making foraging tools in the wild, but with a high level of brain and cognitive development., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Objective: Evaluation of the effect of Neuromidine on the dynamics of pain syndrome in the treatment of patients with discogenic lumbosacral radiculopathy., Material and Methods: Patients with a confirmed diagnosis of discogenic lumbosacral radiculopathy no more than one year old and moderate intensity of pain syndrome on a visual analog scale were included in the main group (OH, n =62, age - 53.1±15.6 yrs) and the comparison group (HS, n =40, age - 53.7±12.9 yrs). OG patients received Neuromidine (15 mg/1 mL 1 once a day IM for 10 days, then 20 mg 3 times a day for 8 weeks) in addition to the standard drug therapy, HS patients received only standard drug therapy. The duration of the study was 8 weeks. The degree of decrease in the intensity and dynamics of pain syndrome, activity and frequency of pain in the lumbar spine, changes in the level of physical activity, and the severity of emotional disorders were evaluated. The level of inflammatory markers in the blood and the dynamics of monosynaptic spinal H-reflex parameters were evaluated., Results: Before the study, there were no statistically significant differences there were no results of clinical and laboratory-instrumental examination between groups. After 8 weeks, the reduction of pain by VAS in the main group was statistically significant in contrast to the comparison group ( p =0.0001). In the main group there was a statistically significant increase in the mean cognitive impairment score ( p =0.0029), as well as an improvement in psycho-emotional state with a significant decrease in GAD-7 ( p =0.0002) and PHQ-9 ( p =0.0096). After 8 weeks of therapy, IL-6 level in the main group was statistically significantly lower ( p =0.0027) than in the comparison group. The results of H-reflex study revealed an increase in its amplitude and some shortening of latency at the end of Neuromidine therapy. The drug had no undesirable side effects and was well tolerated., Conclusion: Administration of Neuromidine 15 mg/1 ml once a day intramuscularly for 10 days followed by 20 mg 3 times a day for 8 weeks has an effective analgesic effect as adjuvant therapy in patients with discogenic lumbosacral radiculopathy. The inclusion of Neuromidine in the complex treatment of patients with pain syndrome in discogenic radiculopathy is superior in efficacy to standard drug therapy.

A set of 12 abietane diterpene derivatives have been synthesised by the Ugi-four component reaction (Ugi-4CR) and tested for cytotoxicity and activity against influenza virus A/Puerto Rico/8/34 (H1N1) and SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirus. Five dipeptide derivatives demonstrated a selectivity index (SI) higher than 10 and IC 50 values from 2 to 32 μM against influenza virus. Compound 11 was found to be a lead with SI of 200, and time-of-addition experiments showed the viral entry into the cell and the binding of the virus to the receptor as a possible target. Compound 7 was the only one showed weak anti-SARS-CoV-2 activity with EC 50 value of 80.96 µM. Taken together, our data suggest the potency of diterpene acids-Ugi products as new effective anti-influenza compounds.

Objective: To assess the prevalence of various complaints indicating poor sleep quality and its disturbances in men and women with primary headaches., Material and Methods: In total 305 patients (mean age 45 years, age range 18-89 years) with primary headache disorders and complaints of poor quality of sleep were included in the study. Women prevailed among these patients (79%). The average age of men (41.6) and women (45.8) had no statistically significant differences ( p =0.8). The initial examination and professional face-to-face interview were initially conducted by an experienced neurologist specializing in the treatment of headaches. Within a week after that, before the start of treatment, patients were interviewed by telephone using standardized questionnaires by specially trained students and physicians., Results: A frequent occurrence of many complaints of sleep disturbances were found in primary headache disorders, both in men and women, they included daytime sleepiness (75.7%), lack of sleep (69.2%), difficulty in falling asleep (57.4%), sleep disruption (51.5%), early morning awakening (47.5%), snoring (18.7%). We found the predominance of these complaints in people over 50 years old. Women had these complaints more frequently than men, besides we determined sex differences in the prevalence of these complaints., Conclusion: Complaints about poor sleep quality are quite common in patients with primary headache disorders and have sex and age differences. Identification of the described complaints of poor sleep quality is a simple tool for the initial analysis of sleep disorders in the practice of any specialist. We recommend paying great attention to these complaints for further diagnostics of sleep disorders and their timely treatment.

The analysis of literary and other information sources (in PubMed, Google Scholar, KiberLeninka and eLibrary databases) devoted to the study of dental manifestations of psychological conditions and the analysis of the ability of dentists to identify psychological predictors of increased tooth erasure in adolescents and young people. Disorders such as stress, depression, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, alcohol dependence, eating disorders - may be risk factors for the development of increased tooth abrasion. Comorbid conditions such as bruxism and gastroesophageal reflux are also considered. Due to the high mortality of adolescents due to mental illness, early diagnosis of disorders of psychological and mental health of adolescents is extremely relevant. Attention is focused on the possibility of early diagnosis by dentists of psychological and mental problems by the presence and type of increased erasability of teeth. Effective examination and treatment of such patients requires a holistic, interdisciplinary approach.

A chemical library was constructed based on the resin acids (abietic, dehydroabietic, and 12-formylabietic) and its diene adducts (maleopimaric and quinopimaric acid derivatives). The one-pot three-component CuCl-catalyzed aminomethylation of the abietane diterpenoid propargyl derivatives was carried out by formaldehyde and secondary amines (diethylamine, pyrrolidine, morpholine, and homopiperazine). All compounds were tested for cytotoxicity and antiviral activity against influenza virus A/Puerto Rico/8/34 (H1N1) in MDCK cells and SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirus in BHK-21-hACE2 cells. Among 21 tested compounds, six derivatives demonstrated a selectivity index (SI) higher than 10, and their IC 50 values ranged from 0.19 to 5.0 μM. Moreover, two derivatives exhibited potent anti-SARS-CoV-2 infection activity. The antiviral activity and toxicity strongly depended on the nature of the diterpene core and heterocyclic substituent. Compounds 12 and 21 bearing pyrrolidine moieties demonstrated the highest virus-inhibiting activity with SIs of 128.6 and 146.8, respectively, and appeared to be most effective when added at the time points 0-10 and 1-10 h of the viral life cycle. Molecular docking and dynamics modeling were adopted to investigate the binding mode of compound 12 into the binding pocket of influenza A virus M2 protein. Compound 9 with a pyrrolidine group at C20 of 17-formylabietic acid was a promising anti-SARS-CoV-2 agent with an EC 50 of 10.97 µM and a good SI value > 18.2. Collectively, our data suggested the potency of diterpenic Mannich bases as effective anti-influenza and anti-COVID-19 compounds., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (© 2022 Phytochemical Society of Europe. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

An increase in the prevalence of autosomal recessive deafness 1A (DFNB1A) in populations of European descent was shown to be promoted by assortative marriages among deaf people. Assortative marriages became possible with the widespread introduction of sign language, resulting in increased genetic fitness of deaf individuals and, thereby, relaxing selection against deafness. However, the effect of this phenomenon was not previously studied in populations with different genetic structures. We developed an agent-based computer model for the analysis of the spread of DFNB1A. Using this model, we tested the impact of different intensities of selection pressure against deafness in an isolated human population over 400 years. Modeling of the "purifying" selection pressure on deafness ("No deaf mating" scenario) resulted in a decrease in the proportion of deaf individuals and the pathogenic allele frequency. Modeling of the "relaxed" selection ("Assortative mating" scenario) resulted in an increase in the proportion of deaf individuals in the first four generations, which then quickly plateaued with a subsequent decline and a decrease in the pathogenic allele frequency. The results of neutral selection pressure modeling ("Random mating" scenario) showed no significant changes in the proportion of deaf individuals or the pathogenic allele frequency after 400 years.

Body-awareness is one of the manifestations of self-awareness, expressed in the ability of people and animals to represent their own body physical properties. Relatively little work has been devoted to this phenomenon in comparison with the studies of the ability of self-recognition in the mirror, and most studies have been conducted on mammals and human infants. Crows are known to be "clever" birds, so we investigated whether hooded crows ( Corvus cornix ) may be aware of their own body size. We set up an experimental design in which the crows had to pass through one of three openings to reach the bait. In the first experiment, we studied whether crows prefer a larger hole if all the three are suitable for passage, and what other predictors influence their choice. In the second experiment, we assessed the ability of the crows to select a single passable hole out of three on the first attempt, even though the area of the former was smaller than that of the other two. The results of the first experiment suggest that when choosing among three passable holes, crows prefer those holes that require less effort from them, e.g., they do not need to crouch or make other additional movements. In the second experiment, three of the five crows reliably more often chose a single passable hole on the first try, despite its smaller size. We believe that these results suggest that hooded crows may be aware of their own body size., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Khvatov, Smirnova, Samuleeva, Ershov, Buinitskaya and Kharitonov.)

The present study investigates telomere length (TL) in dividing chorionic cytotrophoblast cells from karyotypically normal and abnormal first trimester miscarriages and ongoing pregnancies. Using Q-FISH, we measured relative TLs in the metaphase chromosomes of 61 chorionic villous samples. Relative TLs did not differ between karyotypically normal samples from miscarriages and those from ongoing pregnancies ( p = 0.3739). However, among the karyotypically abnormal samples, relative TLs were significantly higher in ongoing pregnancies than in miscarriages ( p < 0.0001). Relative TLs were also significantly higher in chorion samples from karyotypically abnormal ongoing pregnancies than in those from karyotypically normal ones ( p = 0.0018) in contrast to miscarriages, where relative TL values were higher in the karyotypically normal samples ( p = 0.002). In the karyotypically abnormal chorionic cytotrophoblast, the TL variance was significantly lower than in any other group ( p < 0.05). Assessed by TL ratios between sister chromatids, interchromatid TL asymmetry demonstrated similar patterns across all of the chorion samples ( p = 0.22) but significantly exceeded that in PHA-stimulated lymphocytes ( p < 0.0001, p = 0.0003). The longer telomere was predominantly present in the hydroxymethylated sister chromatid in chromosomes featuring hemihydroxymethylation (containing 5-hydroxymethylcytosine in only one sister chromatid)-a typical sign of chorionic cytotrophoblast cells. Our results suggest that the phenomena of interchromatid TL asymmetry and its association to 5hmC patterns in chorionic cytotrophoblast, which are potentially linked to telomere lengthening through recombination, are inherent to the development programme. The TL differences in chorionic cytotrophoblast that are associated with karyotype and embryo viability seem to be determined by heredity rather than telomere elongation mechanisms. The inheritance of long telomeres by a karyotypically abnormal embryo promotes his development, whereas TL in karyotypically normal first-trimester embryos does not seem to have a considerable impact on developmental capacity.

Eight hooded crows (Corvus cornix L.) were tested for their ability to use a piston (a stick with two attached clear plates between which the food is enclosed such that moving the stick would move the food) to get the reward out of a transparent tube avoiding a trap. Six out of eight crows learned to use a piston to extract a food reward from a transparent non-trap tube. One out of these six birds successfully performed the task in which it had to avoid a trap to retrieve a reward, in the first trial showing spontaneous comprehending of the task structure. Four crows learned to perform this task using the trial-and-error method. To find out a mechanism these crows used to perform the task, birds were presented with two transfer tasks (tests) in which we changed the relative positions of components in the apparatus. We found out that crows performed transfer tasks using rather concrete rules than immediate estimation of the relative positions of the components in the apparatus.

An experimental approach was created for the comparative investigation of the cognitive abilities of the glaucous-winged gull (Larus glaucescens) in their natural habitat. The territoriality of gulls during the breeding period and the fact that the gulls inhabiting the territory of the Komandorsky Reserve are practically not in fear of humans allowed us to work with individually recognized birds directly at their nest sites inside the colony. The possibility of using this approach to investigate their cognitive abilities was demonstrated on 24 gulls, in particular, to investigate their abilities for relative size generalization. The first experiment illustrated that the gulls are able to learn to discriminate two pairs of stimuli according to the feature: 'larger' or 'smaller'. They were then given a test to transfer the discriminative rule in which novel combinations of the same stimuli were used. The gulls successfully coped with only a few of these tests. In the next experiment the birds were taught to discriminate four pairs of similar stimuli. The majority of the birds coped with the tests to transfer the discriminative rule both to the novel combinations of familiar stimuli, and also to the novel stimuli of the familiar category (items of different colour and shape). However, none of the birds transferred the discriminative rule to stimuli of a novel category (sets differing by number of components). Thus, in their ability to generalize at a preconceptual level gulls are more comparable with pigeons, whereas large-brained birds (crows and parrots), are capable of concept formation.

The ability of the Corvidae to understand the logical structure in string-pulling tasks was studied in a set of experiments with varied position of strings. It was demonstrated that some hooded crows (Corvus cornix L.) and common ravens (Corvus corax L.) successfully completed the tasks where the strings were not intersected but placed so that the bait was positioned opposite the forepart of the empty string. Hooded crows also solved the task where the baits were attached to both strings, but one of the strings was disrupted. The task with two intersected strings where the bait was positioned opposite the forepart of the empty string was not solved by the crows. The results suggest the ability of both examined species to grasp the logical structure of such kind of tasks.

An original method for studying cognitive abilities in largely wild passerine birds was developed. Studies of five crossbills (Loxia curvirostra) showed that this approach could be used to assess their ability to form concepts. All five crossbills learned selection rules for the "larger number" feature over the range "1-10." The birds successfully transferred this to stimuli significantly different from those used in training, which were not comparable in terms of all quantitative properties, but only some (only area or number). Only one bird was able to transfer the learned choice rule to multiples in a new range ("10-20"). Thus, the ability of representative small forest passerine birds to form the "larger than" concept was demonstrated.

The ability of hooded crows (Corvus cornix L.) and common ravens (Corvus corax L.) to pull up a bait suspended from a horizontal perch by a string was tested. It was shown that some birds of both species successfully solved the string-pulling task. Considerable inter-individual and inter-species differences in task performance are discussed.

Unlabelled: The aim was to study the relationship duodenogastral reflux (DGR) and Helicobacterpylori infection (Hp) at duodenal ulcer (DU)., Material and Methods: Group 1-50 patients with uncomplicated course of DU, Group 2-75 patients with destructive complications of DU; Group 3-40 "healthy" volunteers. It was performed daily EGDS, pH meter, semi-quantitative assessment of contamination of the Hp., Results: The acidity in the body of the stomach was highest in group 2, and lowest--in group 3, patients diagnosed DU night rush giperatsidnosti. In the night period patients from the 1st and 3rd groups were recorded an increase of antral pH, including the expense of growth duration of DGR, while in group 2 reflux was extremely short. The maximum Hp dissemination was in a bulb at fetomaternal of DU., Conclusions: in healthy individuals DGR intragastral involved in the regulation of pH, in patients with uncomplicated DU while reducing the duration of this resonance persists compensation of antral alkalization, and complications throughout the DGR sharply depressed, which is accompanied by severe decompensation alkalization of antrum. Bulbs semination with Hp inversely proportional to the intensity of this resonance.

A new original method to investigate some cognitive abilities of wild passerine birds was developed. In the course of experiments with five crossbills (Loxia curvirostra), it was shown that the method can be used to evaluate the ability of birds to form concepts. Crossbills were presented with pairs of stimuli each consisting of 1 to 10 equal elements. All the five crossbills learned to choose, within a pair, a stimulus with a larger array of elements. The birds successfully transferred this performance to novel stimuli considerably different from the training pairs comparable with the latter only in the number or area. One of the birds showed a complete transfer of the acquired performance of choice to stimuli consisting of 10 to 20 equal elements. Thus, the ability of forest passerine birds to form concept "larger than" was shown.

We studied 24-h rhythms of acid production and alkalization in 30 patients with duodenal ulcer (DU) and 30 healthy subjects using upper endoscopic examination and computer intragastric pH-metry. Gastric acid production was higher in DU patients and was more intensive in the daytime than at night. Healthy subjects had low and monotonous acid production. In DU decompensation of alkalization in the antral stomach and suppression of duodenogastric reflux is total. In healthy subjects antrum alkalization is more evident and intensive at night due to, among other causes, duodenogastric reflux.

The article discusses changes in the psychological status and the forming of various types of attitude towards the disease in patients with a favorable and unfavorable course of peptic ulcer (PU). The subjects of the study were 82 patients with exacerbation of PU; among them there were 30 patients with a favorable and 52 patient with a complicated course. Patients with a favorable course of PU did not displayed prominent peaks in SMOL profile, which reflected a relatively benign state of their psychological status. Favorable type of response to the disease--harmonic and anosognostic--with lesser social disadaptation prevailed in these patients. On the contrary, patients with a complicated course of PU displayed a relative increase in the profile on the scales, reflecting a higher tension in combination with diadaptive response to the disesase, which should be taking into account when correcting treatment.

Role of venous reflux in evolution and prediction of acute varicotrombophlebitis (AVTP) has been evaluated with coloured duplex scanning performed as daily monitoring. It is demonstrated that venous reflux determines the direction and rate of thromb formation, it potential of embolism, promotes formation of floating thrombi. Study of venous reflux permits to predict the evolution of AVTP. It is one of the key elements which influences the thrombus formation and determines policy of treatment of varicose disease complicated with AVTP.

Eight crows were taught to discriminate overlapping pairs of visual stimuli (A+ B-, B+ C-, C+ D-, and D+ E-). For 4 birds, the stimuli were colored cards with a circle of the same color on the reverse side whose diameter decreased from A to E (ordered feedback group). These circles were made available for comparison to potentially help the crows order the stimuli along a physical dimension. For the other 4 birds, the circles corresponding to the colored cards had the same diameter (constant feedback group). In later testing, a novel choice pair (BD) was presented. Reinforcement history involving stimuli B and D was controlled so that the reinforcement/nonreinforcement ratios for the latter would be greater than for the former. If, during the BD test, the crows chose between stimuli according to these reinforcement/nonreinforcement ratios, then they should prefer D; if they chose according to the diameter of the feedback stimuli, then they should prefer B. In the ordered feedback group, the crows strongly preferred B over D; in the constant feedback group, the crows' choice did not differ significantly from chance. These results, plus simulations using associative models, suggest that the orderability of the postchoice feedback stimuli is important for crows' transitive responding.

Twelve adult hooded crows (Corvus cornix) were trained to perform a standard radial-maze task in a giant eight-arm outdoor radial maze constructed at the "Chistyi les" Biological Station (Tver oblast) for comparative investigations of spatial memory in birds and mammals. The maze consists of a central part of 250 cm diameter, and has arms of 650 cm length, 170 cm height and 80 cm width. The examined hooded crows showed good task performance. Errors (repeated visits to empty arms) were few in number and were predominantly connected with the tendency to avoid arms close to an observer.

Studies were undertaken to determine whether four crows previously trained to an image-based abstract selection rule could establish a relationship between the number of elements in a group and initially indifferent symbols (arabic numerals) and operate with these symbols, i.e., studies addressed the ability of these birds to symbolize. Unlike other similar studies, there was no use of special development of associative connections between the symbols and the corresponding arrays of elements, but conditions were created in which birds could observe these relationships on the basis of comparison with previously obtained information. Demonstration series were performed for this purpose, in which correct solutions by the crow resulted in receipt of a number of larvae corresponding to the number of elements in the array pictured or numeral imaged on the stimulus selected by the crow. Images belonged to the same category as the corresponding stimulus for selection (the second stimulus was another category): if the image was an array, then the corresponding picture for selection also bore an array, and vice versa. Crows could solve the task successfully by using an image-based selection rule. In test series, the image and both selection stimuli were initially from different categories: if the image was a numeral, then both selection stimuli were arrays, and vice versa. All four crows successfully coped with this task. Despite the absence of any similarity between the image and "correct" stimulus, they selected the array corresponding to the numeral and vice versa. It is suggested that the birds could achieve this result by comparing the information obtained during the presentation series--about the number of reinforcement units corresponding to each stimulus. Similar experiments showed that crows could use numbers to perform operations analogous to arithmetic addition.

It was shown that a large set of training stimuli promotes abstract concept learning. These experiments were designed to assess whether an application of a large set of training stimuli would facilitate matching learning in crows. Four hooded crows were trained with a set of 72 unique combinations of stimuli in two-alternative simultaneous matching tasks with stimuli of three different categories: achromatic color (white, light-grey, dark-grey, and black), shape (Arabic numerals from 1 to 4 used as visual shapes only), and number of elements (heterogeneous graphic arrays from 1 to 4 items). Although the performance of all crows was significantly above chance (p < 0.01) in some 72-trial blocks, birds were unable to establish matching and to reach the criterion of learning 80% correct or better over 72 consecutive trials) in 5184 trials. Thus, the modified training procedure was less efficient than the training technique previously used (successive cyclic repetition of three small sets of training stimuli), which allowed four of six crows to acquire the matching rule after 1780, 2360, 3830, and 5260 trials [4,9].

The ability in prototype symbolization was studied in four crows trained in matching concept. The experimental approach was characterized by the absence of direct training providing an association between the pictured arrays and Arabic numerals. Experimental sessions were divided into demonstrative and test phases. In the demonstrative phases, the sample and the reinforced stimulus belonged to the same category: if the sample was a pictured array, the reinforced stimulus was also the pictured array, if the sample was a numeral, the reinforced stimulus was likewise a numeral. Matching-to-sample competence was sufficient to perform this task successfully. In case of a correct choice a crow received some mealworms, their number was equal to the number of items in the pictured array or the Arabic numeral. In the test phases, the sample and the comparison stimuli were of different categories. If the sample was a pictured array, the comparison stimuli were numerals; if the sample was a numeral, the comparisons were the pictured arrays. Such tests required the birds to choose a numeric symbol corresponding to the pictured array or to choose the array of pictured items numerically equal to the Arabic symbol. All four crows performed this task successfully. Birds were able to set up a correspondence between the Arabic numeral from 1 to 4 and the number of elements in pictured arrays by way of mental juxtaposition of the earlier received information. Similar experiments showed that crows are likely to be able to perform mental operations with numerals analogous to simple arithmetic addition.

For a comparative neurobiological analysis of spatial learning and memory, a large outdoor eight-arm radial maze was constructed which permits behavioral assessment of many avian and mammalian species both from the laboratory or the wild, using the same metric space and session schedules. It consists of a central part of 250cm diameter, and has arms of 650cm length, 170cm height and 80cm width. In order to determine appropriate training schedules for comparison of different species, we tested four mammalian and two avian species during 9-15 sessions: 18 albino rats (Rattus norvegicus), nine outdoors and nine in a conventional small indoor maze; six guinea pigs (Cavia porcellus); six rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus); five hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus); seven hooded crows (Corvus corone cornix) and six chickens (Gallus domesticus). Rats learned fast in both mazes yet significantly better in the large one. Good-to-excellent learning was also observed in juvenile rabbits and wild-caught crows, although the latter tended to avoid arms in the vicinity of the observer. Hedgehogs and chickens did not show significant learning as a group, but some individuals appeared to learn the task. Guinea pigs remained continuously passive and could not be trained. Thus, in spite of species-specific demands for reward, adaptation and pre-training, this type of radial maze permits to directly compare a wide variety of species. Such comparability is essential for an analysis of underlying neurobiological mechanisms.

Hooded crows were trained in two-alternative simultaneous matching and oddity tasks with stimulus sets of three different categories: color (black and white), shape (Arabic Numerals 1 and 2, which were used as visual shapes only), and number of elements (arrays of one and two items). These three sets were used for training successively and repeatedly; the stimulus set was changed to the next one after the criterion (80% correct or better over 30 consecutive trials) was reached with the previous one. Training was continued until the criterion could be reached within the first 30 to 50 trials for each of the three training sets. During partial transfer tests, familiar stimuli (numerals and arrays in the range from 1 to 2) were paired with novel ones (numerals and arrays in the range from 3 to 4). At the final stage of testing only novel stimuli were presented (numerals and arrays in the range from 5 to 8). Four of 6 birds were able to transfer in these tests, and their performance was significantly above chance. Moreover, performance of the birds on the array stimuli did not differ from their performance on the color or shape stimuli. They were capable of recognizing the number of elements in arrays and comparing the stimuli by this attribute. It was concluded that crows were able to apply the matching (or oddity) concept to stimuli of numerical category.

Six hooded crows (Corvus cornix) were trained in alternative simultaneous matching-to-sample and oddity-from-sample tasks with visual stimuli. Bird's ability to acquire the abstract same/different concept was investigated. For this purpose three stimulus sets of the following categories were used: color (black and white cards), shape (Arabic numerals "1" and "2"), and numerousness (heterogeneous arrays of 1 or 2 elements). These three sets were used for training successively and repeatedly; each time the stimulus set was changed for the next one after the criterion (80% correct or better over 30 successive trials) was reached with the previous one. The training procedure was repeated until the criterion could be reached for each of the three stimulus sets within the initial 30-50 trials. After that, the abstractness of the rule acquired by birds was tested. First, the "partial" transfer tests were conducted, which consisted in presentation of novel stimuli with familiar ones (numerals and arrays in the range from 1 to 4). At the final stage, only sets of novel numerals and arrays in the range from 5 to 8 were presented. The crows demonstrated successful transfer in all of these tests, including the test with absolutely novel stimuli (in the first 24 presentations: min 75.0%, p < 0.02; max 83.3%, p < 0.01). The level of correct choices did not differ from the baseline (p > 0.05). This allows us to conclude that birds are capable for formation of the abstract same/different concept.

Four gray crows were trained to choose the larger of two sets presented to them within the "1-12" range. The color, form, and size of the stimulus elements on cards, as well as the patterns of their disposition, were varied constantly during training, while at the same time prohibiting the use of extraneous features not relating to the number of elements. In order to exclude choice on the basis of the total area of the elements, series of presentations with variation of the ratio of the number of elements and their total area were carried out: in half of the presentations the larger set consisted of small elements, and the smaller set of large elements; in the second half, the reverse. In this range all of the birds demonstrated a high accuracy of evaluations (75.3 +/- 2.4%), including when there were minimal differences between the sets to be compared. Thus, in the "1-12" range, the crows were found to be capable of accurately comparing sets precisely on the basis of the number of elements in them. When a transition was made to a new "10-20" range, all of the crows demonstrated a successful transfer of the developed reaction (71.5 +/- 2.3%). However, when the ratio of the number of elements and their total area was varied, only two birds were able to cope with this task (71.9 +/- 3.6%). Overall, the results obtained indicate a capacity of crows for the formation of the concept "larger set," and are regarded as a manifestation of a high level of development of reflective activity.

Four carrion crows were trained to choose the greater array from pairs of numerousness discriminanda in the range of 1-12. In the process of training all irrelevant attributes of the arrays (geometric form, size and color of elements, patterns of distribution) were varied. Several control procedures were employed to make extraneous cues unlikely. In particular, in order to preclude the use of cumulative area or other magnitude cues the ratio of cumulative area of elements to their number was varied (in a half of presentations the greater array consisted of bigger elements while the lesser array consisted of smaller elements and in the other half the greater array consisted of smaller elements while the lesser array consisted of bigger elements). All the crows demonstrated high accuracy of comparisons (75.3 +/- 2.4%). Correct performance dominated also under conditions with minimal difference between the compared arrays. It was concluded that these crows were able to compare the arrays in the range of 1-12 by numerosity itself. When arrays in the new range of 10-20 were presented all the crows demonstrated successful transfer of acquired reaction without any additional training (71.5 +/- 2.3%). However, when the ratio of cumulative area of elements to their number varied only two of the four crows performed successfully (71.9 +/- 3.6). Taken together these data suggest that crows are capable of forming the concept "more than" based on numerical discrimination up to 20.

In 33 patients with different forms of the cardiac valves lesion the specificity marking the course of atriomegalia was studied on the ground of clinical, roentgenological and functional findings. Unlike non-pregnant women with similar forms of the malady here intercurrent pulmonary hypertension during gestation was ascertained, this increasing the hazard of developing edema of the lungs. The authors give preference to delivery in these patients via natural maternal passages by employing the operation with application of obstetrical forceps.

Bicycle ergometry on the "Elema" electrical bicycle ergometer was conducted on 6, patients of climacteric age (41 to 55 years) with pain in the region of the heart and ECG changes. The method made it possible to confirm the diagnosis of climacteric cardiopathy in 39 and to reveal climacteric cardiopathy and concurrent ischemic heart disease in 23 patients. It was noted that physical load had a favourable effect on processes of repolarization in the myocardium of patients with climacteric cardiopathy.