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Interstrand cross-links (ICLs) are among the most cytotoxic DNA lesions to cells because they prevent the two DNA strands from separating, thereby precluding replication and transcription. Even though chemotherapeutic cross-linking agents are well established in clinical use, and numerous repair proteins have been implicated in the initial events of mammalian ICL repair, the precise mechanistic details of these events remain to be elucidated. This review will summarize our current understanding of how ICL repair is initiated with an emphasis on the context (replicating, transcribed or quiescent DNA) in which the ICL is recognized, and how the chemical and physical properties of ICLs influence repair. Although most studies have focused on replication-dependent repair because of the relation to highly replicative tumor cells, replication-independent ICL repair is likely to be important in the circumvention of cross-link cytotoxicity in nondividing, terminally differentiated cells that may be challenged with exogenous or endogenous sources of ICLs. Consequently, the ICL repair pathway that should be considered "dominant" appears to depend on the cell type and the DNA context in which the ICL is encountered. The ability to define and inhibit distinct pathways of ICL repair in different cell cycle phases may help in developing methods that increase cytotoxicity to cancer cells while reducing side-effects in nondividing normal cells. This may also lead to a better understanding of pathways that protect against malignancy and aging., (Environ. Mol. Mutagen., 2010. (c) 2010 Wiley-Liss, Inc.)

DNA interstrand cross-links (ICLs) are cytotoxic products of common anticancer drugs and cellular metabolic processes, whose mechanism(s) of repair remains poorly understood. In this study, we show that cross-link structure affects ICL repair in nonreplicating reporter plasmids that contain a mispaired N(4)C-ethyl-N(4)C (C-C), N3T-ethyl-N3T (T-T), or N1I-ethyl-N3T (I-T) ICL. The T-T and I-T cross-links obstruct the hydrogen bond face of the base and mimic the N1G-ethyl-N3C ICL created by bis-chloroethylnitrosourea, whereas the C-C cross-link does not interfere with base pair formation. Host-cell reactivation (HCR) assays in human and hamster cells showed that repair of these ICLs primarily involves the transcription-coupled nucleotide excision repair (TC-NER) pathway. Repair of the C-C ICL was 5-fold more efficient than repair of the T-T or I-T ICLs, suggesting the latter cross-links hinder lesion bypass following initial ICL unhooking. The level of luciferase expression from plasmids containing a C-C cross-link remnant on either the transcribed or nontranscribed strand increased in NER-deficient cells, indicating NER involvement occurs at a step prior to remnant removal, whereas expression from similar T-T remnant plasmids was inhibited in NER-deficient cells, demonstrating NER is required for remnant removal. Sequence analysis of repaired plasmids showed a high proportion of C residues inserted at the site of the T-T and I-T cross-links, and HCR assays showed that Rev1 was likely responsible for these insertions. In contrast, both C and G residues were inserted at the C-C cross-link site, and Rev1 was not required for repair, suggesting replicative or other translesion polymerases can bypass the C-C remnant.

DNA interstrand cross-links (ICLs) are products of chemotherapeutic agents and cellular metabolic processes that block both replication and transcription. If left unrepaired, ICLs are extremely toxic to cells, and ICL repair mechanisms contribute to the survival of certain chemotherapeutic resistance tumors. A critical step in ICL repair involves unhooking the cross-link. In the absence of a homologous donor sequence, the resulting gap can be filled in by a repair synthesis step involving bypass of the cross-link remnant. Here, we examine the effect of cross-link structure on the ability of unhooked DNA substrates to undergo repair synthesis in mammalian whole cell extracts. Using 32P incorporation assays, we found that repair synthesis occurs efficiently past the site of damage when a DNA substrate containing a single N4C-ethyl-N4C cross-link is incubated in HeLa or Chinese hamster ovary cell extracts. This lesion, which can base pair with deoxyguanosine, is readily bypassed by both Escherichia coli DNA polymerase I and T7 DNA polymerase in a primer extension assay. In contrast, bypass was not observed in the primer extension assay or in mammalian cell extracts when DNA substrates containing a N3T-ethyl-N3T or N1I-ethyl-N3T cross-link, whose linkers obstruct the hydrogen bond face of the bases, were used. A modified phosphorothioate sequencing method was used to analyze the ICL repair patches created in the mammalian cell extracts. In the case of the N4C-ethyl-N4C substrate, the repair patch spanned the site of the cross-link, and the lesion was bypassed in an error-free manner. However, although the N3T-ethyl-N3T and N1I-ethyl-N3T substrates were unhooked in the extracts, bypass was not detected. These and our previous results suggest that although the chemical structure of an ICL may not affect initial cross-link unhooking, it can play a significant role in subsequent processing of the cross-link. Understanding how the physical and chemical differences of ICLs affect repair may provide a better understanding of the cytotoxic and mutagenic potential of specific ICLs.

Interstrand cross-links (ICLs) are formed by many chemotherapeutic agents and may also arise endogenously. The mechanisms used to repair these lesions remain unclear in mammalian cells. Repair in Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae requires an initial unhooking step to release the tethered DNA strands. We used a panel of linear substrates containing different site-specific ICLs to characterize how structure affects ICL processing in mammalian cell extracts. We demonstrate that ICL-induced distortions affect NER-dependent and -independent processing events. The NER-dependent pathway produces dual incisions 5' to the site of the ICL as described previously [Bessho, T., et al. (1997) Mol. Cell. Biol. 17 (12), 6822-6830] but does not release the cross-link. Surprisingly, we also found that the interstrand cross-linked duplexes were unhooked in mammalian cell extracts in a manner independent of the NER pathway. Unhooking occurred identically in extracts prepared from human and rodent cells and is dependent on ATP hydrolysis and metal ions. The structure of the unhooked product was characterized and was found to contain the remnant of the cross-link. Both the NER-mediated dual 5' incisions and unhooking reactions were greatly stimulated by ICL-induced distortions, including increased local flexibility and disruption of base pairs surrounding the site of the ICL. These results suggest that in DNA not undergoing transcription or replication, distortions induced by the presence of an ICL could contribute significantly to initial cross-link recognition and processing.

The study of DNA repair has been facilitated by the development of extract-based in vitro assay systems and the use of synthetic DNA duplexes that contain site-specific lesions as repair substrates. Unfortunately, exposed DNA termini can be a liability when working in crude cell extracts because they are targets for DNA end-modifying enzymes and binding sites for proteins that recognize DNA termini. In particular, the double-strand break repair protein Ku is an abundant DNA end-binding protein that has been shown to interfere with nucleotide excision repair (NER) in vitro. To facilitate the investigation of NER in whole-cell extracts, we explored ways of modifying the exposed ends of synthetic repair substrates to prevent Ku binding and improve in vitro NER efficiency. Replacement of six contiguous phosphodiester linkages at the 3'-ends of the duplex repair substrate with nuclease-resistant nonionic methylphosphonate linkages resulted in a 280-fold decrease in binding affinity between Ku and the modified duplex. These results are consistent with the published crystal structure of a Ku/DNA complex [Walker et al. (2001) Nature 412, 607-614] and show that the 3'-terminal phosphodiester linkages of linear DNA duplexes are important determinants in DNA end-binding by Ku. Using HeLa whole-cell extracts and a 149-base pair DNA duplex repair substrate, we tested the effects of modification of exposed DNA termini on NER-mediated in vitro excision of a 1,3-GTG-Pt(II) intrastrand cross-link. Methylphosphonate modification at the 3'-ends of the repair substrate resulted in a 1.6-fold increase in excision. Derivatization of the 5'-ends of the duplex with biotin and subsequent conjugation with streptavidin to block Ku binding resulted in a 2.3-fold increase excision. By combining these modifications, we were able to effectively reduce Ku-derived interference of NER excision in vitro and observed a 4.4-fold increase in platinum lesion excision. These modifications are easy to incorporate into synthetic oligonucleotides and may find general utility whenever synthetic linear duplex DNAs are used as substrates to investigate DNA repair in whole-cell extracts.

The repair of DNA by nucleotide excision repair (NER) and non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) is essential for maintenance of genomic integrity and cell viability. Examination of NHEJ and NER in vitro using cell-free extracts has led to a deeper understanding of the biochemical mechanisms that underlie these processes. Current methods for production of whole-cell extracts (WCEs) to investigate NER and NHEJ start with one or more liters of culture containing 1-5 x 10(9) cells. Here, we describe a small-scale method for production of WCE that can be used to study NER. We also describe a rapid, small-scale method for the preparation of WCE that can be used in the study of NHEJ. These methods require less time, 20- to 1000-fold fewer cells than large-scale extracts, facilitate examination of numerous samples and are ideal for such applications as the study of host-virus interactions and analysis of mutant cell lines.

The ability of the water-soluble Vitamin E analog, Trolox, to prevent the toxic effects of copper exposure on the behavior and neuronal physiology of the freshwater oligochaete Lumbriculus variegatus was examined. Trolox produced a concentration-dependent increase in the 24 h LC(50) for copper exposure, with 100 microM Trolox elevating the LC(50) by almost seven-fold (from 0.36 to 2.43 microM). Copper exposure (0.2 microM) for 24h produced a reduction in the conduction velocity of the medial and lateral giant nerve fibers, which was prevented by 100 microM Trolox. Copper exposure (0.2 microM) for 24h also reduced the effectiveness of substrate vibration in eliciting giant nerve fiber spikes. Trolox prevented this reduction in sensory responsiveness. Trolox (100 microM) partially reversed the copper-induced (0.4 microM) decrease in touch-evoked helical swimming behavior, but had no effect on the copper-induced decrement in touch-evoked body reversal. Copper exposure (0.2 microM) for 24 h reduced the amount of spontaneous locomotion (crawling); however, Trolox did not reverse this effect. However, Trolox exposure alone produced a decrease in the distance crawled that was similar in magnitude to copper exposure. In normal worms, rapid spiking activity of the medial giant nerve fiber produces facilitation in the amplitude of the resulting muscle potentials produced by the longitudinal body wall muscles. Copper exposure had no effect on the amount of muscle potential facilitation, but Trolox exposure (100 microM) produced a significant decrease in facilitation. The results of this study indicate that many of the toxic effects of copper exposure on Lumbriculus are prevented or reduced by the antioxidant Trolox. However, the results of this study also indicate that Trolox has toxic effects on behavior and neuronal physiology. The results presented here document one of the few published reports of the detrimental effects of Vitamin E or its analogs on nervous system function or behavior.

The behavioral and neurotoxic effects of copper exposure were examined in the freshwater oligochaete, Lumbriculus variegatus. The 24 h LC50 for worms exposed to copper sulfate in an artificial pond water was 0.45 microM. Almost all animals that died due to copper exposure died during the first day of exposure. Immersion in water containing 0.2 or 0.4 microM copper produced time- and concentration-dependent reductions in the ability of tactile stimulation to evoke two stereotyped locomotory behaviors, body reversal and helical swimming. Helical swimming was more severely affected by copper exposure than was body reversal behavior. Upon return to clean water, both behaviors returned to normal levels within 1-2 days. Noninvasive electrophysiological testing indicated that copper exposure produced time- and concentration-dependent reductions in the conduction velocities of the medial and lateral giant nerve fibers. An 8 h exposure to 0.2 microM copper produced significant reductions in giant fiber conduction velocities that returned to normal levels within 3 days of return to clean water. It is likely that copper exposure can significantly degrade the ability of aquatic oligochaetes to avoid predators., (Copyright 2004 Elsevier B.V.)