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The mopane worm (Gonimbrasia belina) is an edible insect distributed across southern Africa. As a culturally important source of food, the mopane worm provides nutrition, livelihoods and improves wellbeing for rural communities across its range. However, this is strong evidence that insect populations are declining worldwide, and climate change is likely to cause many insect species to shift in their distributions. For these reasons, we aimed to model how the ecosystem service benefits of the mopane worm are likely to change in the coming decades. We modelled the distribution of the mopane worm under two contrasting climate change scenarios (RCPs 4.5 and 8.5). Moreover, given that the mopane worm shows strong interactions with other species, particularly trees, we incorporated biotic interactions in our models using a Bayesian network. Our models project significant contraction across the species’ range, with up to 70% decline in habitat by the 2080s. Botswana and Zimbabwe are predicted to be the most severely impacted countries, with almost all habitat in Botswana and Zimbabwe modelled to be lost by the 2080s. Decline of mopane worm habitat would likely have negative implications for the health of people in rural communities due to loss of an important source of protein as well as household income provided by their harvest. Biogeographic shifts therefore have potential to exacerbate food insecurity, socio-economic inequalities, and gender imbalance (women are the main harvesters), with cascading effects that most negatively impact poor rural communities dependent on natural resource

Global food production systems are currently under scrutiny, in particular the health, nutrition, and environmental impacts of livestock-derived food (LDF). Despite South Africa’s recent socio­economic transformation and increased per-capita LDF consumption, the triple burden of malnutri­tion persists. Policy responses to such complex problems often fail because of linear thinking with short-term goals. However, a systems approach helps identify root causes, feedback mechanisms, potential unintended consequences, and opportu­nities for integrated, durable solutions. Participa­tion in the systems-thinking process improves stakeholder understanding and buy-in. Our par­ticipatory workshop facilitated the development of a systems map for South African LDF, identifying key system elements, linkages, and nexus points. The latter included climate change, land access and management, livestock management and produc­tivity, farming systems, food safety, policy articula­tion, agricultural knowledge, and income. Based on these findings, and an overview of related litera­ture, we produced a conceptual system dynamics model of the LDF system. We identified key vari­ables and causal relationships, vicious and virtuous loops, system archetypes, conceptual stock and flows, and links to Sustainable Development Goals. The LDF system is complex and dynamic, with a dominance of commercial enterprises across agriculture and food retail, presenting barriers for small and medium-scale individuals. Other key elements relate to population growth and urbaniza­tion, land access, deregulation of international trade, climate change vulnerability, feed production limitations, and food safety. Our work provides a unique reference for policymakers, identifying the need for deep structural change, highlighting the possible unintended consequences, and thereby mitigating the risk of system destabilization.

Business as usual or transformative change? While the global agro-industrial food system is credited with increasing food production, availability and accessibility, it is also credited with giving birth to ‘new’ challenges such as malnutrition, biodiversity loss, and environmental degradation. We reviewed the potential of underutilized indigenous and traditional crops to bring about a transformative change to South Africa’s food system. South Africa has a dichotomous food system, characterized by a distinct, dominant agro-industrial, and, alternative, informal food system. This dichotomous food system has inadvertently undermined the development of smallholder producers. While the dominant agro-industrial food system has led to improvements in food supply, it has also resulted in significant trade-offs with agro-biodiversity, dietary diversity, environmental sustainability, and socio-economic stability, especially amongst the rural poor. This challenges South Africa’s ability to deliver on sustainable and healthy food systems under environmental change. The review proposes a transdisciplinary approach to mainstreaming underutilized indigenous and traditional crops into the food system, which offers real opportunities for developing a sustainable and healthy food system, while, at the same time, achieving societal goals such as employment creation, wellbeing, and environmental sustainability. This process can be initiated by researchers translating existing evidence for informing policy-makers. Similarly, policy-makers need to acknowledge the divergence in the existing policies, and bring about policy convergence in pursuit of a food system which includes smallholder famers, and where underutilized indigenous and traditional crops are mainstreamed into the South African food system.

Mwabvu, T., Lamb, J., Slotow, R., Hamer, M., Barraclough, D. (2015): Do cytochrome c oxidase 1 gene sequences differentiate species of spirostreptid millipedes (Diplopoda: Spirostreptida: Spirostreptidae)? African Invertebrates 56 (3): 651, DOI: 10.5733/afin.056.0311, URL: http://www.bioone.org/doi/10.5733/afin.056.0311

1. Scaling theory predicts that organisms respond to different scales of resource patchiness in relation to their own size. We tested the hypothesis that the scale of nutrient patchiness mediates resource partitioning between large trees and small grasses in a semi-arid savanna. 2. In a factorial field experiment, Colophospermum mopane trees and associated grasses were fertilized at either a fine or coarse scale of patchiness with nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) or N + P. The growth of marked tree shoots, herbaceous biomass and leafNand P concentrations were monitored for 2 years following fertilization. 3. Responses of trees were partly scale dependent. Tree leaf N concentration and shoot length relatively increased with fertilization at a coarse scale. Tree leaf mass decreased when P was supplied at a fine scale of patchiness, suggesting intensified grass competition. 4. Phosphorus fertilization increased leaf P concentrations more in grasses than trees, whereas N fertilization increased leaf N concentration moderately in both trees and grasses. Herbaceous above-ground biomass around focal trees was negatively correlated with tree size when fertilized with N, suggesting intensified tree competition. 5. Synthesis. Our results support the hypothesis that trees benefit more from nutrients supplied at a relatively coarse scale of patchiness. No direct responses of grasses to scale were detected. In trees, the scale effect was surpassed by the effect of sample year, when rainfall varied

In the eThekwini Metropolitan Area, mitigation of the Bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn) invasion within the KwaZulu-Natal Sandstone Sourveld (KZNSS) has been identified as a major environmental priority. To facilitate informed interventions, reliable Bracken fern spatial distribution is necessary. Earlier efforts to map the fern using lower spatial and spectral resolution imagery have been unsuccessful. Consequently, this study sought to determine the reliability of the “new generation” World View-2 (WV-2) image characterised by higher spatial and spectral resolution in delineating the fern invaded areas. The eight band WV2 image was atmospherically corrected and spectrally resized as the SPOT-5 wavebands, additional bands and all bands. The classification accuracy was compared to results from the SPOT-5 image. Results showed that classification based on WV-2s additional bands had superior classification accuracy than the rest of the categories. Furthermore, classification based on all the WV-2s bands and the traditional bands perfomed better than the SPOT-5 image in delineating areas covered by the fern. These findings indicate the value of of the “new generation” imagery characterised by higher spatial and spectral resolution in improving the accuracy of the fern invaded landscapes.

1. Understanding and accurately predicting the spatial patterns of habitat use by organisms is important for ecological research, biodiversity conservation and ecosystem management. However, this understanding is complicated by the effects of spatial scale, because the scale of analysis affects the quantification of species–environment relationships. 2. We therefore assessed the influence of environmental context (i.e. the characteristics of the landscape surrounding a site), varied over a large range of scales (i.e. ambit radii around focal sites), on the analysis and prediction of habitat selection by African elephants in Kruger National Park, South Africa. 3. We focused on the spatial scaling of the elephants’ response to their main resources, forage and water, and found that the quantification of habitat selection strongly depended on the scales at which environmental context was considered. Moreover, the inclusion of environmental context at characteristic scales (i.e. those at which habitat selectivity was maximized) increased the predictive capacity of habitat suitability models. 4. The elephants responded to their environment in a scale-dependent and perhaps hierarchical manner, with forage characteristics driving habitat selection at coarse spatial scales, and surface water at fine spatial scales. 5. Furthermore, the elephants exhibited sexual habitat segregation, mainly in relation to vegetation characteristics. Male elephants preferred areas with high tree cover and low herbaceous biomass, whereas this pattern was reversed for female elephants. 6. We show that the spatial distribution of elephants can be better understood and predicted when scale-dependent species–environment relationships are explicitly considered. This demonstrates the importance of considering the influence of spatial scale on the analysis of spatial patterning in ecological phenomena.

Elucidation of the mechanism determining the spatial scale of patch selection by herbivores has been complicated by the way in which resource availability at a specific scale is measured and by vigilance behaviour of the herbivores themselves. To reduce these complications, we studied patch selection by an animal with negligible predation risk, the African elephant. We introduce the concept of nutrient load as the product of patch size, number of patches and local patch nutrient concentration. Nutrient load provides a novel spatially explicit expression of the total available nutrients a herbivore can select from. We hypothesized that elephant would select nutrient-rich patches, based on the nutrient load per 2500m2 down to the individual plant scale, and that this selection will depend on the nitrogen and phosphorous contents of plants. We predicted that elephant would cause more adverse impact to trees of lower value to them in order to reach plant parts with higher nutrient concentrations such as bark and root. However, elephant should maintain nutrient-rich trees by inducing coppicing of trees through re-utilization of leaves. 5.Elephant patch selection was measured in a homogenous tree species stand by manipulating the spatial distribution of soil nutrients in a large field experiment using NPK fertilizer. Elephant were able to select nutrient-rich patches and utilized Colophospermum mopane trees inside these patches more than outside, at scales ranging from 2500 down to 100m2. Although both nitrogen and phosphorus contents of leaves from C. mopane trees were higher in fertilized and selected patches, patch choice correlated most strongly with nitrogen content. As predicted, stripping of leaves occurred more in nutrient-rich patches, while adverse impact such as uprooting of trees occurred more in nutrient-poor areas. Our results emphasize the necessity of including scale-dependent selectivity in foraging studies and how elephant foraging behaviour can be used as indicators of change in the availability of nutrients.

There is a growing concern that the feeding habits of the African elephant, which include pushing over, uprooting and snapping trees, may have a negative impact on other herbivores. Browsed trees are known to respond by either increasing production (shoots and leaves) or defence (secondary compounds). It is not clear, however, what proportion of the browsed biomass can be made available at lower feeding heights after a tree is pushed over or snapped; thus, it is also unclear how the forage quality is affected. In a field survey in Kruger National Park, South Africa, 708 Mopane trees were measured over four elephant utilization categories: snapped trees, pushed-over trees, uprooted trees and control trees. The elephants' impact on the leaf biomass distribution was quantified, and the forage quality (Ca, P, K and Mg, N, digestibility and condensed tannin [CT] concentrations) were analyzed. Pushed-over and uprooted trees had the maximum leaf biomass at lower heights (2 m). In all three utilization categories, the minimum leaf biomass was seven times higher than it was for control trees at a height of below 1 m. Leaf nitrogen content increased in all three categories and was significantly higher in snapped trees. CT concentrations increased slightly in all trees that were utilized by elephants, especially on granitic soils in the dry season. The results provide the insight that elephants facilitate the redistribution and availability of browse and improve the quality, which may positively affect small browsing herbivores.

Forage quality within an African savanna depends upon limiting nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) and nutrients that constrain the intake rates (non-digestible fibre) of herbivores. These forage quality nutrients are particularly crucial in the dry season when concentrations of limiting nutrients decline and non-digestible fibres increase. Using artificial neural networks we test the ability of a new imaging spectrometer (CAO Alpha sensor), both alone and in combination with ancillary data, to map quantities of grass forage nutrients in the early dry season within an African savanna. Respectively 65%, 57% and 41%, of the variance in fibre, phosphorus and nitrogen concentrations were explained. We found that all grass forage nutrients show response to fire and soil. Principal component analysis, not only reduced image dimensionality, but was a useful method for removing cross-track illumination effects in the CAO imagery. To further improve the mapping of forage nutrients in the dry season we suggest that spectra within the shortwave infrared (SWIR) region, or additional relevant ancillary data, are required.

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