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Non-PR, IFPRI5; 1 Fostering Climate-Resilient and Sustainable Food Supply; 3 Building Inclusive and Efficient Markets, Trade Systems, and Food Industry; 4 Transforming Agricultural and Rural Economies; G Cross-cutting gender theme, EPTD, This review paper presents a collection of tools and methodologies for understanding/studying gendered work patterns and time use, with a focus on agriculture and allied activities. In addition to scoping the literature for methods, it also offers new methodological insights into gendered dimensions of rural work and time use to support data-collection efforts. Rural women’s work is often uncounted or underestimated in traditional laborforce surveys because of the multiplicity of activities they engage in throughout the year and their infrequent, short-term and informal nature. However, accurate, consistent, and comparable data on the work, employment and time use for women and men is imperative to track progress on global goals for gender equality and guide development interventions. We discuss qualitative and quantitative methods, tools and innovative approaches to collect data on work and time use in rural areas, along with an in-depth discussion on methodological issues that can guide further research to strengthen accurate and reliable data-collection efforts. This review is not only a ‘one-stop shop’ for different methods and tools related to studying work patterns, labor and time use; it also offers researchers and development practitioners opportunities for conducting more focused research towards developing new and innovative tools, and gives some clues about how to better move forward to achieve gender equality and equity goals. This can occur through better and more nuanced data to understand and analyze work patterns and time use in different contexts, geographies and sociocultural environments.

PR, IFPRI4; CRP2; DCA, DSGD; PIM, CGIAR Research Program on Policies, Institutions, and Markets (PIM), The term “feminization of agriculture” is used to capture a wide range of gender dynamics and shifts in rural gender relations. Definitions range from the broadening and deepening of women’s involvement in agriculture (Lastarria-Cornhiel 2006) to the increase in rural women’s measured economic participation in agriculture and a reported visibility of women in agricultural activities (Deere 2005). The term may be used to imply an increase in women’s labor in agriculture, in women’s labor relative to that of men, or in women’s roles in agricultural decision-making. Broadly speaking, however, literature on the feminization of agriculture has challenged researchers and development practitioners to consider how changing rural landscapes are affecting women, especially where men are moving out of agriculture. These changes have impacts on women’s productive and reproductive workloads, both paid and unpaid, as well as their agency and decision-making, both within the farm and the household and in the community and a variety of institutions.

Non-PR, IFPRI1; Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index; CRP2; 4 Transforming Agricultural and Rural Economies; G Cross-cutting gender theme, PIM, CGIAR Research Program on Policies, Institutions, and Markets (PIM), Using primary survey data collected in Tajikistan, Nepal and Senegal, three countries with high male outmigration rates, this study analyzes the impacts of migration on the empowerment of women who remain in rural areas. The study uses indicators from the Abbreviate Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (A-WEAI) to measure women’s empowerment in five domains (decision-making autonomy around agricultural production, resources, control over income, group membership and workload) and instrumental variable approaches to address the endogeneity between the migration of a family member and women’s empowerment. It finds that male outmigration leads to women’s empowerment in agriculture in some domains and disempowerment in others. In Tajikistan, where women start with low levels of empowerment, women in households with a migrant are more likely to be involved in decisions in productive activities on the household farm, control income, own assets and achieve workload balance than women in non-migrant households. In Nepal and Senegal, women start at higher levels of empowerment and we see fewer differences in their empowerment based on whether they live in a migrant-sending household. The impacts of migration on empowerment depend on the context, whether the household receives remittances or owns land, and women’s position within the household.

Non-PR, IFPRI1; CRP2; 4 Transforming Agricultural and Rural Economies; G Cross-cutting gender theme, PIM, CGIAR Research Program on Policies, Institutions, and Markets (PIM), This study investigates the gendered patterns of livestock ownership in rural households in Uganda using a detailed data set with information on ownership, management, and decision-making across different types of livestock. Drawing on the bundle of rights frameworks developed by Schlager and Ostrom (1992) and Benjaminsen and Ba (2009), the analysis demonstrates the importance of going beyond considering ownership to also consider these other rights. We find that people may claim to be owners, but not to have the management or fructus rights, but also people may have these latter rights without claiming ownership. Using interviews from both the husband and wife in the household, we analyze the patterns of disagreement regarding claims to these rights and find substantial disagreement.

Non-PR, IFPRI1; CRP4; GAAP; Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index; Capacity Strengthening; G Cross-cutting gender theme, PHND; A4NH, CGIAR Research Program on Agriculture for Nutrition and Health (A4NH), Using the project-Women’s Empowerment in Agricultural Index (pro-WEAI) survey tool developed by GAAP2, this study aims to estimate the impact of a microfinance ‘plus’ programme on women’s economic empowerment in communities in Oromia and Afar, Ethiopia. The programme incorporates multiple interventions, which are implemented through women-run rural savings and credit cooperatives (RUSACCOs), with the intention of improving beneficiary women’s decision-making over productive assets, control over income, and leadership in rural institutions. A major component of the programme is aimed at rural women’s greater access to credit, but interventions also include agricultural livestock and technology transfers, business training, as well as a community gender awareness component. A difference-in-difference estimator with Inverse Probability Weighting (IPW) is used to evaluate the impact of the programme on women’s empowerment in Oromia. Because of conflict in the area, baseline data collection was delayed and data was collected after some interventions had already begun in Oromia. As such, nearly all beneficiaries already had access to credit through the RUSACCOs at baseline, and both women and men were already empowered in a number of dimensions at baseline. Among households with beneficiaries who continued in good standing between baseline and midline, the programme positively contributed to both women’s and men’s empowerment with regards to respect among household members. It did not lead to additional impacts in terms of overall empowerment and gender parity within the household or across the other pro-WEAI indicators. However, it appears that, by maintaining good standing in the RUSACCOs, female participants were able to maintain high levels of empowerment across the other indicators. A second group of beneficiary women, who either chose to leave the RUSACCO or did not maintain good standing as a member, were also highly empowered across many dimensions at baseline but

Non-PR, IFPRI5; CRP2, EPTD; PIM, CGIAR Research Program on Policies, Institutions, and Markets (PIM); CGIAR Platform for Big Data in Agriculture (Big Data), We use CDRs of mobile phone users in Uganda combined with data from a phone survey to train machine-learning models to predict the sex of the mobile phone user and several indicators of economic empowerment such as ownership of a house and land, occupation, and decision-making over household income. The most accurate of the models predicts the sex of the mobile phone user with 78% accuracy. The different indicators of economic empowerment are predicted with accuracies ranging from 57% to 61%. We also predict users’ sex and economic empowerment jointly. However, when we predict economic empowerment and then the sex of the user, we achieve high accuracy rates ranging from 81% to 87%. Mobile phone usage data hold potential for gender research although they are not without limitations.

Non-PR, IFPRI1; CRP2; 4 Transforming Agricultural and Rural Economies; G Cross-cutting gender theme, PIM, CGIAR Research Program on Policies, Institutions, and Markets (PIM), In Nepal, as in many developing countries, male outmigration from rural areas is significant and is rapidly transforming the sending communities. Using primary data collected from households in rural Nepali communities, this study analyzes the effects of male out-migration from rural agricultural areas on women’s and men’s work on and off the farm. Using an instrumental variable approach to correct for endogeneity related to outmigration, the study finds differential impacts on agricultural labor for the men and women who remain. Men reduce labor in non-farm work without significantly increasing their labor allocation to other activities. Women, on the other hand, increase their work on the farm taking on new responsibilities and moving from contributing family workers to primary farmers. Despite their growing roles as primary farmers, women in households with a migrant do not increase their work in higher value activities, and remain predominantly concentrated in producing staple grains. The analysis highlights the importance of recognizing the changing roles of rural women, especially with respect to the management of the family farm, but it also raises questions about the sustainability and resilience of rural livelihoods to shocks in remittance incomes.

Non-PR, IFPRI1; CRP2; G Cross-cutting gender theme; 4 Transforming Agricultural and Rural Economies, PIM; DSGD, CGIAR Research Program on Policies, Institutions, and Markets (PIM), Rural transformation is central to the broader structural transformation process taking place in developing countries — fueled by the globalization of value chains, changing food systems, new technologies, conflict and displacement, and climate change, among other factors. Rural transformation refers to the process whereby rural economies diversify into nonfarm activities, agriculture becomes more capital-intensive and commercially oriented, and linkages with neighboring towns and cities grow and deepen (Berdegué, Rosada, and Bebbington 2014). It can bring about fundamental changes in the way businesses and households organize, such as the commercialization and diversification of agricultural production; increased agricultural productivity; migration; and the emergence of a broader set of rural livelihood activities.