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A significant link between forest loss and fragmentation and outbreaks of Ebola virus disease (EVD) in humans has been documented. Deforestation may alter the natural circulation of viruses and change the composition, abundance, behaviour and possibly viral exposure of reservoir species. This in turn might increase contact between infected animals and humans. Fruit bats of the family Pteropodidae have been suspected as reservoirs of the Ebola virus. At present, the only evidence associating fruit bats with EVD is the presence of seropositive individuals in eight species and polymerase chain reaction-positive individuals in three of these. Our study investigates whether human activities can increase African fruit bat geographical ranges and whether this influence overlaps geographically with EVD outbreaks that, in turn, are favoured by deforestation. We use species observation records for the 20 fruit bat species found in favourable areas for the Ebola virus to determine factors affecting the bats' range inside the predicted Ebola virus area. We do this by employing a hypothetico-deductive approach based on favourability modelling. We show that the range of some fruit bat species is linked to human activities within the favourable areas for the Ebola virus. More specifically, the areas where human activities favour the presence of five fruit bat species overlap with the areas where EVD outbreaks in humans were themselves favoured by deforestation. These five species are as follows: Eidolon helvum, Epomops franqueti, Megaloglossus woermanni, Micropteropus pusillus and Rousettus aegyptiacus. Of these five, all but Megaloglossus woermanni have recorded seropositive individuals. For the remaining 15 bat species, we found no biogeographical support for the hypothesis that positive human influence on fruit bats could be associated with EVD outbreaks in deforested areas within the tropical forest biome in West and Central Africa. Our work is a useful first step allowing further investigation of the networks and pathways that may lead to an EVD outbreak. The modelling framework we employ here can be used for other emerging infectious diseases.

Background Germany is considered to be a low prevalence country for viral Hepatitis B, C and D (HBV, HCV, HDV). However, the burden of disease can be high among subpopulations. To meet the world Health Organization (WHO) viral hepatitis (VH) elimination goals, a national strategy was developed by the German government in 2016. We performed a scoping review to understand the baseline epidemiological situation in Germany regarding burden of disease, sequelae and care of HBV, HCV and HDV as a reference to monitor the progress of the national VH elimination and to identify further knowledge gaps and research needs. Methods The protocol of the systematic review was prepared following the PRISMA statement guidelines for scoping reviews. Relevant search terms were used to identify eligible studies according to the research questions. We searched six online databases for original work published between January 2005 and March 2017. Based on the identified references, a matrix was developed presenting the eligible literature by targeted population group and outcome category. Results 104 publications were eligible for extraction covering 299 outcome results. The population groups targeted in the identified studies included the general population and proxy populations, a range of clinical populations, people who inject drugs, men who have sex with men, healthcare workers, people in prisons and different migrant/mobile populations. Other vulnerable populations (e.g. sex workers) were not targeted. Overall, good evidence was found for HBV and HCV prevalence and HBV vaccination coverage in the GP and proxy populations. Evidence for these outcomes was weaker in populations at risk for VH. For HBV and HCV incidence and mortality, we identified large evidence gaps in all population groups. Outcomes on VH sequelae and care were mainly covered by studies in clinical populations of people living with viral hepatitis. For HDV the overall evidence available was scarce. Conclusions We created a comprehensive evidence-based overview on the current epidemiological situation of viral hepatitis in Germany. We identified knowledge gaps for further research and established a baseline for future monitoring of viral hepatitis elimination goals in Germany.

Pneumoviruses have been identified as causative agents in several respiratory disease outbreaks in habituated wild great apes. Based on phylogenetic evidence, transmission from humans is likely. However, the pathogens have never been detected in the local human population prior to or at the same time as an outbreak. Here, we report the first simultaneous detection of a human respiratory syncytial virus (HRSV) infection in western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) and in the local human population at a field program in the Central African Republic. A total of 15 gorilla and 15 human fecal samples and 80 human throat swabs were tested for HRSV, human metapneumovirus, and other respiratory viruses. We were able to obtain identical sequences for HRSV A from four gorillas and four humans. In contrast, we did not detect HRSV or any other classic human respiratory virus in gorilla fecal samples in two other outbreaks in the same field program. Enterovirus sequences were detected but the implication of these viruses in the etiology of these outbreaks remains speculative. Our findings of HRSV in wild but human-habituated gorillas underline, once again, the risk of interspecies transmission from humans to endangered great apes.

Although wild chimpanzees and other African great apes live in regions endemic for African sleeping sickness, very little is known about their trypanosome infections, mainly due to major difficulties in obtaining their blood samples. In present work, we established a diagnostic ITS1-based PCR assay that allows detection of the DNA of all four Trypanosoma brucei subspecies (Trypanosoma bruceibrucei, Trypanosoma bruceirhodesiense, Trypanosoma bruceigambiense, and Trypanosoma bruceievansi) in feces of experimentally infected mice. Next, using this assay we revealed the presence of trypanosomes in the fecal samples of wild chimpanzees and this finding was further supported by results obtained using a set of primate tissue samples. Phylogenetic analysis of the ITS1 region showed that the majority of obtained sequences fell into the robust T. brucei group, providing strong evidence that these infections were caused by T. b. rhodesiense and/or T. b. gambiense. The optimized technique of trypanosome detection in feces will improve our knowledge about the epidemiology of trypanosomes in primates and possibly also other endangered mammals, from which blood and tissue samples cannot be obtained. Finally, we demonstrated that the mandrill serum was able to efficiently lyse T. b. brucei and T. b. rhodesiense, and to some extent T. b. gambiense, while the chimpanzee serum failed to lyse any of these subspecies., Graphical abstract, Highlights • ITS1-based PCR allows the detection of the Trypanosoma brucei in feces of non-human primates. • Wild chimpanzees are frequently infected with the T. brucei subspecies. • Mandrill serum efficiently lyses also Trypanosoma bruceigambiense.

Since their discovery 40 years ago, Ebola viruses (in the following: EBOV; family Filoviridae, genus Ebolavirus) continue to emerge unpredictably and cause Ebola virus disease (EVD) in humans and susceptible animals in tropical Africa (Leroy et al. 2004; Feldmann and Geisbert 2011). The scale of the current epidemic in West Africa demonstrates the impact that a single spillover event can have (Baize et al. 2014; Gire et al. 2014). Meanwhile, the reservoir(s) and ecology of EBOV remain largely unknown (Groseth et al. 2007; Feldmann and Geisbert 2011), hampering prediction of future outbreaks. To date, the only laboratory-confirmed sources of human EVD outbreaks were infected great apes and duikers (Leroy et al. 2004). However, these species are unlikely reservoirs as high mortality rates rule out an indefinite infection chain (Leroy et al. 2004; Bermejo et al. 2006; Wittmann et al. 2007). Scientists are therefore searching for other hosts where EBOV circulate without major negative effects; fruit bats have received the most research attention and are frequently referred to as the reservoir for African EBOV (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2014b; O’Shea et al. 2014; World Health Organization 2014). We review current evidence and highlight that fruit bats may not represent the main, or the sole, reservoir. We discuss evidence implicating insectivorous bats and reiterate that bats themselves might not be the ultimate reservoir for EBOV. Knowing which species are involved will facilitate an understanding of factors allowing spillover to susceptible human and wildlife populations (Viana et al. 2014; Plowright et al. 2015).

The severe Ebola virus disease epidemic occurring in West Africa stems from a single zoonotic transmission event to a 2-year-old boy in Meliandou, Guinea. We investigated the zoonotic origins of the epidemic using wildlife surveys, interviews, and molecular analyses of bat and environmental samples. We found no evidence for a concurrent outbreak in larger wildlife. Exposure to fruit bats is common in the region, but the index case may have been infected by playing in a hollow tree housing a colony of insectivorous free-tailed bats (Mops condylurus). Bats in this family have previously been discussed as potential sources for Ebola virus outbreaks, and experimental data have shown that this species can survive experimental infection. These analyses expand the range of possible Ebola virus sources to include insectivorous bats and reiterate the importance of broader sampling efforts for understanding Ebola virus ecology.

Since the eradication of smallpox and the subsequent discontinuation of the worldwide smallpox vaccination program, other Orthopoxviruses beside Variola virus have been increasingly representing a risk to human health. To investigate the extent of natural contact with Orthopoxviruses and possible demographic risk factors for such an exposure, we performed a cross-sectional serosurvey of anti-Orthopoxvirus IgG antibodies in West and Central Africa. To this end, people living in forest regions in Côte d’Ivoire (CIV, n = 737) and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (COD, n = 267) were assigned into groups according to their likely smallpox vaccination status. The overall prevalence of anti-Orthopoxvirus antibodies was 51% in CIV and 60% in COD. High rates of seropositivity among the vaccinated part of the population (80% in CIV; 96% COD) indicated a long-lasting post vaccination immune response. In non-vaccinated participants, seroprevalences of 19% (CIV) and 26% (COD) indicated regular contact with Orthopoxviruses. Multivariate logistic regression revealed that the antibody level in the vaccinated part of the population was higher in COD than in CIV, increased with age and was slightly higher in females than males. In the unvaccinated part of the population none of these factors influenced antibody level significantly. In conclusion, our results confirm expectedly high anti-Orthopoxvirus seroprevalences in previously smallpox-vaccinated people living in CIV and the COD but more unexpectedly imply regular contact with Orthopoxviruses both in Western and Central Africa, even in the absence of recognized outbreaks.

Background Zoonotic transmission events play a major role in the emergence of novel diseases. While such events are virtually impossible to predict, wildlife screening for potential emerging pathogens can be a first step. Driven by recent disease epidemics like severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), and Ebola, bats have gained special interest as reservoirs of emerging viruses. Methods As part of a bigger study investigating pathogens in African bats we screened animals for the presence of known and unknown viruses. Results We isolated and characterised a novel reovirus from blood of free-tailed bats (Chaereophon aloysiisabaudiae) captured in 2006 in Côte d’Ivoire. The virus showed closest relationship with two human pathogenic viruses, Colorado tick fever virus and Eyach virus, and was able to infect various human cell lines in vitro. Conclusion The study shows the presence of a coltivirus-related virus in bats from Sub-Sahara Africa. Serological studies could help to assess its impact on humans or wildlife health.

Ebola virus disease (EVD) is a contagious, severe and often lethal form of hemorrhagic fever in humans. The association of EVD outbreaks with forest clearance has been suggested previously but many aspects remained uncharacterized. We used remote sensing techniques to investigate the association between deforestation in time and space, with EVD outbreaks in Central and West Africa. Favorability modeling, centered on 27 EVD outbreak sites and 280 comparable control sites, revealed that outbreaks located along the limits of the rainforest biome were significantly associated with forest losses within the previous 2 years. This association was strongest for closed forests (>83%), both intact and disturbed, of a range of tree heights (5–>19 m). Our results suggest that the increased probability of an EVD outbreak occurring in a site is linked to recent deforestation events, and that preventing the loss of forests could reduce the likelihood of future outbreaks.

The existence and genetic make-up of most primate retroviruses was revealed by studies of bushmeat and fecal samples from unhabituated primate communities. For these, detailed data on intra- and within-species contact rates are generally missing, which makes identification of factors influencing transmission a challenging task. Here we present an assessment of 12 years of research on primate retroviruses in the Taï National Park area, Côte d’Ivoire. We discuss insights gained into the prevalence, within- and cross-species transmission of primate retroviruses (including towards local human populations) and the importance of virus–host interactions in determining cross-species transmission risk. Finally we discuss how retroviruses ecology and evolution may change in a shifting environment and identify avenues for future research.

Ebola virus disease (EVD) is a threat to human health and to the survival of African great apes. The disease has led to major population declines in chimpanzees Pan troglodytes and gorillas Gorilla gorilla, and infected great apes play an important role as sources of human EVD outbreaks. The threat posed by EVD raises the question whether vaccination of wild apes is an effective strategy to reduce the occurrence and impact of this disease. We review the current knowledge about EVD in great apes and document the link between outbreaks in apes and in humans, mainly via bushmeat consumption. We discuss the need for control strategies, such as vaccination, and describe aspects of primate behaviour, virus biology, vaccine composition, and vaccination principles that need to be considered when making management decisions about great ape vaccination. Finally, we identify gaps in the understanding of Ebola ecology and highlight surveillance and research that can aid the survival of great apes and reduce human exposure to Ebola virus. The severe impact of EVD indicates the need for efficient monitoring and, ultimately, control of Ebola. However, the unknown reservoir and unpredictable emergence of Ebola, the elusive nature of great apes, and the lack of licensed and suitable vaccines represent major hurdles for such control. Public education about zoonotic diseases and monitoring of great ape health are both important strategies. Experts should also discuss the feasibility of developing safe vaccines that can be delivered efficiently to large populations of elusive wild apes in their natural remote habitats. This review provides a platform for further interdisciplinary discussions, so that management plans can be discussed and adjusted according to possible future changes in the development, availability and cost of vaccines, the status of EVD, knowledge about Ebola ecology, and opinion on wildlife vaccination.

Few lethal pathogens in wild-living primates have been described, and little is known about infectious diseases of the reproductive tract and their possible impact on health and reproduction. This report describes the pathology and isolation of an alpha-toxin producing strain of Clostridium septicum in a case of necrotizing endometritis in a wild sooty mangabey found dead in a tropical rainforest of West Africa.

Emerging zoonotic infectious diseases pose a serious threat to global health. This is especially true in relation to the great apes, whose close phylogenetic relationship with humans results in a high potential for microorganism exchange. In this review, we show how studies of the microorganisms of wild great apes can lead to the discovery of novel pathogens of importance for humans. We also illustrate how these primates, living in their natural habitats, can serve as sentinels for outbreaks of human disease in regions with a high likelihood of disease emergence. Greater sampling efforts and improvements in sample preservation and diagnostic capacity are rapidly improving our understanding of the diversity and distribution of microorganisms in wild great apes. Linking non-invasive diagnostic data with observational health data from great apes habituated to human presence is a promising approach for the discovery of pathogens of high relevance for humans.

Simian T-lymphotropic virus type 1 (STLV-1) strains occasionally infect humans. However, the frequency of such infections is unknown. We show that direct transmission of STLV-1 from nonhuman primates to humans may be responsible for a substantial proportion of human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 infections in rural Côte d’Ivoire, where primate hunting is common.

Adenoviruses (AdVs) broadly infect vertebrate hosts, including a variety of nonhuman primates (NHPs). In the present study, we identified AdVs in NHPs living in their natural habitats, and through the combination of phylogenetic analyses and information on the habitats and epidemiological settings, we detected possible horizontal transmission events between NHPs and humans. Wild NHPs were analyzed with a pan-primate AdV-specific PCR using a degenerate nested primer set that targets the highly conserved adenovirus DNA polymerase gene. A plethora of novel AdV sequences were identified, representing at least 45 distinct AdVs. From the AdV-positive individuals, 29 nearly complete hexon genes were amplified and, based on phylogenetic analysis, tentatively allocated to all known human AdV species ( Human adenovirus A to Human adenovirus G [HAdV-A to -G]) as well as to the only simian AdV species ( Simian adenovirus A [SAdV-A]). Interestingly, five of the AdVs detected in great apes grouped into the HAdV-A, HAdV-D, HAdV-F, or SAdV-A clade. Furthermore, we report the first detection of AdVs in New World monkeys, clustering at the base of the primate AdV evolutionary tree. Most notably, six chimpanzee AdVs of species HAdV-A to HAdV-F revealed a remarkably close relationship to human AdVs, possibly indicating recent interspecies transmission events.

The oncogenic Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) infects humans worldwide, but little is known about the occurrence of viruses related to MCPyV in the closest phylogenetic relatives of humans, great apes. We analyzed samples from 30 wild chimpanzees and one captive gorilla and identified two new groups of polyomaviruses (PyVs). These new viruses are by far the closest relatives to MCPyV described to date, providing the first evidence of the natural occurrence of PyVs related to MCPyV in wild great apes. Similar to MCPyV, the prevalence of these viruses is relatively high (>30%). This, together with the fact that humans in West and Central Africa frequently hunt and butcher primates, may point toward further MCPyV-like strains spreading to, or already existing in, our species.

Simian retroviruses are precursors of all human retroviral pathogens. However, little is known about the prevalence and coinfection rates or the genetic diversity of major retroviruses—simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), simian T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 (STLV-1), and simian foamy virus (SFV)—in wild populations of nonhuman primates. Such information would contribute to the understanding of the natural history of retroviruses in various host species. Here, we estimate these parameters for wild West African red colobus monkeys ( Piliocolobus badius badius ) in the Taï National Park, Côte d'Ivoire. We collected samples from a total of 54 red colobus monkeys; samples consisted of blood and/or internal organs from 22 monkeys and additionally muscle and other tissue samples from another 32 monkeys. PCR analyses revealed a high prevalence of SIV, STLV-1, and SFV in this population, with rates of 82%, 50%, and 86%, respectively. Forty-five percent of the monkeys were coinfected with all three viruses while another 32% were coinfected with SIV in combination with either STLV or SFV. As expected, phylogenetic analyses showed a host-specific pattern for SIV and SFV strains. In contrast, STLV-1 strains appeared to be distributed in genetically distinct and distant clades, which are unique to the Taï forest and include strains previously described from wild chimpanzees in the same area. The high prevalence of all three retroviral infections in P. b. badius represents a source of infection to chimpanzees and possibly to humans, who hunt them.

Hantaviruses are members of the Bunyaviridae family carried by small mammals and causing human hemorrhagic fevers worldwide. In Western Africa, where a variety of hemorrhagic fever viruses occurs, indigenous hantaviruses have been molecularly found in animal reservoirs such as rodents, shrews, and bats since 2006. To investigate the human contact to hantaviruses carried by these hosts and to assess the public health relevance of hantaviruses for humans living in the tropical rainforest regions of Western and Central Africa, we performed a cross-sectional seroprevalence study in the region of Tai National Park in Cote d´Ivoire and the Bandundu region near the Salonga National Park in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Serum samples were initially screened with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays using nucleoproteins of several hantaviruses as diagnostic antigens. Positive results were confirmed by Western blotting and immunofluorescence testing. Seroprevalence rates of 3.9% (27/687) and 2.4% (7/295), respectively, were found in the investigated regions in Cote d´Ivoire and the Democratic Republic of Congo. In Cote d´Ivoire, this value was significantly higher than the seroprevalence rates previously reported from the neighboring country Guinea as well as from South Africa. Our study indicates an exposure of humans to hantaviruses in West and Central African tropical rainforest areas. In order to pinpoint the possible existence and frequency of clinical disease caused by hantaviruses in this region of the world, systematic investigations of patients with fever and renal or respiratory symptoms are required.

Elevated exposure levels to non-human primates (NHP) and NHP bushmeat represent major risk factors for zoonotic disease transmission in sub-Saharan Africa. Demography can affect personal nutritional behavior, and thus rates of contact to NHP bushmeat. Here, we analyzed demographic and NHP contact data from 504 participants of differing demographic backgrounds living in proximity to the Tai National Park in Western Cote d'Ivoire (CI) to identify factors impacting the risk of NHP exposure. Overall, participants' contact rates to NHP were high, and increased along a gradient of bushmeat processing (e.g., 7.7% hunted, but 61.9% consumed monkeys). Contact to monkeys was significantly more frequent than to chimpanzees, most likely a reflection of meat availability and hunting effort. 17.2% of participants reported previous interaction with NHP pets. Generalized linear mixed model analysis revealed significant effects of sex, country of birth or ethnicity on rates of NHP bushmeat contact, with male participants from CI being at particular risk of exposure to NHP. The presence of zoonotic pathogens in humans and NHP in Tai further highlights the risk for zoonotic disease emergence in this region. Our results are relevant for formulating prevention strategies to reduce zoonotic pathogen burden in tropical Africa.

The Tai region in Western Cote d`Ivoire is characterized by extensive overlap of human and animal habitats. This could influence patterns of adenovirus transmission between humans and domestic animals. Fecal samples from humans and various domestic animals were tested for the presence of adenoviruses by PCR. Phylogenetic and species delineation analyses were performed to further characterize the adenoviruses circulating in the region and to identify potential cross-species transmission events. Among domestic animals, adenovirus shedding was frequent (21.6% of domestic mammals and 41.5% of chickens) and the detected strains were highly diverse, several of them representing novel types. Although no evidence for zoonotic transmission of animal adenovirus was obtained, the present study provides concordant evidence in favor of common cross-species transmission of adenoviruses between different animal species and first indications for adenovirus transmission from humans to animals. These findings underline the thus far underestimated importance of reverse zoonotic transmission of viruses and of the role of domestic animals as pathogen reservoirs, “bridge species,” or intermediate hosts.

Despite a relatively long search for the origin of ebolaviruses, their reservoirs remain elusive. Researchers might have to consider testing alternative hypotheses about how these viruses persist and emerge to advance ebolavirus research. This article aims to encourage researchers to bring forward such hypotheses, to discuss them scientifically and to open alternative research avenues regarding the origin and ecology of ebolaviruses.

We performed 796 dip-stick tests on urine from 100 wild West African chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) from 4 habituated groups in the tropical rain forest of Tai National Park, Cote d'Ivoire, to establish reference values for health monitoring. Specific gravity was also measured on 359 urine samples from 62 chimpanzees. The effect of age, sex, group, month, estrus, pregnancy, meat consumption, and acute respiratory disease on pH, leucocytes, protein, blood, hemoglobin, and glucose was examined using ordinal logistic regression. The presence of nitrite, ketones, bilirubin, and urobilinogen in urine was also recorded. Outbreak of acute respiratory disease did not influence any of the urinary parameters. Thirty-seven percent of the samples had a pH

Background: Human adenoviruses of species D (HAdV-D) can be associated with acute respiratory illness, epidemic keratoconjunctivitis, and gastroenteritis, but subclinical HAdV-D infections with prolonged shedding have also been observed, particularly in immunocompromised hosts. To expand knowledge on HAdV-D in Sub-Saharan Africa, we investigated the prevalence, epidemiology and pathogenic potential of HAdV-D in humans from rural areas of 4 Sub-Saharan countries, Cote d’Ivoire (CI), Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Central African Republic (CAR) and Uganda (UG). Methods: Stool samples were collected from 287 people living in rural regions in CI, DRC, CAR and UG. HAdV-D prevalence and diversity were determined by PCR and sequencing. A gene block, spanning the genes pV to hexon, was used for analysis of genetic distance. Correlation between adenovirus infection and disease symptoms, prevalence differences, and the effect of age and gender on infection status were analyzed with cross tables and logistic regression models. Results: The prevalence of HAdV-D in the investigated sites was estimated to be 66% in CI, 48% in DRC, 28% in CAR (adults only) and 65% in UG (adults only). Younger individuals were more frequently infected than adults; there was no difference in HAdV-D occurrence between genders. No correlation could be found between HAdV-D infection and clinical symptoms. Highly diverse HAdV-D sequences were identified, among which a number are likely to stand for novel types. Conclusions: HAdV-D was detected with a high prevalence in study populations of 4 Sub-Saharan countries. The genetic diversity of the virus was high and further investigations are needed to pinpoint pathological potential of each of the viruses. High diversity may also favor the emergence of recombinants with altered tropism and pathogenic properties.

Polyomaviruses are a family of small non-enveloped DNA viruses that encode oncogenes and have been associated, to greater or lesser extent, with human disease and cancer. Currently, twelve polyomaviruses are known to circulate within the human population. To further examine the diversity of human polyomaviruses, we have utilized a combinatorial approach comprised of initial degenerate primer-based PCR identification and phylogenetic analysis of nonhuman primate (NHP) polyomavirus species, followed by polyomavirus-specific serological analysis of human sera. Using this approach we identified twenty novel NHP polyomaviruses: nine in great apes (six in chimpanzees, two in gorillas and one in orangutan), five in Old World monkeys and six in New World monkeys. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that only four of the nine chimpanzee polyomaviruses (six novel and three previously identified) had known close human counterparts. To determine whether the remaining chimpanzee polyomaviruses had potential human counterparts, the major viral capsid proteins (VP1) of four chimpanzee polyomaviruses were expressed in E. coli for use as antigens in enzyme-linked immunoassay (ELISA). Human serum/plasma samples from both Côte d'Ivoire and Germany showed frequent seropositivity for the four viruses. Antibody pre-adsorption-based ELISA excluded the possibility that reactivities resulted from binding to known human polyomaviruses. Together, these results support the existence of additional polyomaviruses circulating within the human population that are genetically and serologically related to existing chimpanzee polyomaviruses., Author Summary Polyomaviruses are able to cause severe disease in immunocompromised individuals. The discovery of Merkel cell polyomavirus and its association with Merkel cell carcinoma has increased interest in these viruses, resulting in the identification of several novel human polyomaviruses in recent years. The existence of one of these recently identified viruses, human polyomavirus 9 (HPyV9), had been predicted nearly 30 years prior due to the ability of human sera to neutralize infection of an African green monkey polyomavirus (Lymphotropic polyomavirus; LPyV). HPyV9 and LPyV are now known to be antigenically and phylogenetically closely related. We hypothesized that nonhuman primate (NHP) polyomaviruses, in particular those of the closely related chimpanzee, may serve as genetic and immunological predictors for the existence of yet unknown human polyomaviruses. In the present study, we discovered 20 novel NHP polyomaviruses, six of which were isolated from chimpanzees. Of the 9 chimpanzee polyomaviruses now known, 5 do not presently have a closely related human counterpart. Serologic reactivity against these novel chimpanzee viruses was observed in humans from European and African populations. From these data we predict that additional human polyomaviruses exist which are genetically and serologically related to the novel chimpanzee polyomaviruses.

Background Simian Immunodeficiency Viruses (SIVs) are the precursors of Human Immunodeficiency Viruses (HIVs) which have lead to the worldwide HIV/AIDS pandemic. By studying SIVs in wild primates we can better understand the circulation of these viruses in their natural hosts and habitat, and perhaps identify factors that influence susceptibility and transmission within and between various host species. We investigated the SIV status of wild West African chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) which frequently hunt and consume the western red colobus monkey (Piliocolobus badius badius), a species known to be infected to a high percentage with its specific SIV strain (SIVwrc). Results Blood and plasma samples from 32 wild chimpanzees were tested with INNO-LIA HIV I/II Score kit to detect cross-reactive antibodies to HIV antigens. Twenty-three of the samples were also tested for antibodies to 43 specific SIV and HIV lineages, including SIVwrc. Tissue samples from all but two chimpanzees were tested for SIV by PCRs using generic SIV primers that detect all known primate lentiviruses as well as primers designed to specifically detect SIVwrc. Seventeen of the chimpanzees showed varying degrees of cross-reactivity to the HIV specific antigens in the INNO-LIA test; however no sample had antibodies to SIV or HIV strain - and lineage specific antigens in the Luminex test. No SIV DNA was found in any of the samples. Conclusions We could not detect any conclusive trace of SIV infection from the red colobus monkeys in the chimpanzees, despite high exposure to this virus through frequent hunting. The results of our study raise interesting questions regarding the host-parasite relationship of SIVwrc and wild chimpanzees in their natural habitat.

Background Cytomegaloviruses (CMVs) are herpesviruses that infect many mammalian species, including humans. Infection generally passes undetected, but the virus can cause serious disease in individuals with impaired immune function. Human CMV (HCMV) is circulating with high seroprevalence (60–100 %) on all continents. However, little information is available on HCMV genoprevalence and genetic diversity in subsaharan Africa, especially in rural areas of West Africa that are at high risk of human-to-human HCMV transmission. In addition, there is a potential for zoonotic spillover of pathogens through bushmeat hunting and handling in these areas as shown for various retroviruses. Although HCMV and nonhuman CMVs are regarded as species-specific, potential human infection with CMVs of non-human primate (NHP) origin, shown to circulate in the local NHP population, has not been studied. Findings Analysis of 657 human oral swabs and fecal samples collected from 518 individuals living in 8 villages of Côte d’Ivoire with generic PCR for identification of human and NHP CMVs revealed shedding of HCMV in 2.5 % of the individuals. Determination of glycoprotein B sequences showed identity with strains Towne, AD169 and Toledo, respectively. NHP CMV sequences were not detected. Conclusions HCMV is actively circulating in a proportion of the rural Côte d’Ivoire human population with circulating strains being closely related to those previously identified in non-African countries. The lack of NHP CMVs in human populations in an environment conducive to cross-species infection supports zoonotic transmission of CMVs to humans being at most a rare event.