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World Health Organization (WHO) predicts that cancer incidence will increase in the future, thus research involving anticancer agents such as nanoparticles has gained significant importance. Nanoparticles can be made from various materials, but the focus on polymeric chitosan and/or carrageenan-based nanoparticles is significant. Research on these materials investigates dynamic parameters of in vitro drug release, stability under working conditions and stability under storage conditions (in vitro kinetics characterisations). Here, a literature review is conducted to provide in-depth insights on research methodology trends, drawbacks, suitability, suggestions for improvements and findings related to polymeric carrageenan and/or chitosan nanoparticles for anticancer therapy. Journal articles involving nanoparticles made from chitosan and/or carrageenan containing anticancer agents published between 2017 and 2022 were acquired through Google Scholar search using relevant keywords. Generally, the methods used to investigate drug release kinetics of nanoparticles can be categorised into dialysis membrane, sample and separate or direct measurement methods. Studies on the response of physiochemical characteristics towards changes in environment do not vary highly and are generalisable. Stability studies primarily measure the physicochemical changes of nanoparticles as a response measurement towards storage conditions. Both drug release selectivity and physicochemical characteristics response in different pH environments were found to be predictable via the ionisation of polymers and drugs used in different pH. The size of the nanoparticles formed during polyelectrolyte complexation process was found to be at its minimum at a balanced pH, possibly due to increased polymer-polymer attraction. The methods used for in vitro kinetics studies were generalised, and suggestions to address potential sources of errors were given in the current review. The selectivity of drug release and changes in physicochemical characteristics of the nanoparticles in different pH environments were found to largely coincide with the principles of ionisation of nanoparticle constituent.

Commercially available topical oral drugs in current markets have low efficacy in delivery active load to the infected site due to poor formulation. Delivery of the active ingredients proven to be challenging as compared to skin due the presence of saliva and low shear. The aim of this project to improve formulation and characterised suitable hydrogels which later will be incorporated with nanoparticle drug for oral cancer. The gels are formulated at different pH values (4, 7, 10) and concentrations as such (0.1%, 0.15%, 0.2%, 0.25%, 0.5% and 1.0% for alginate whereas kappa-carrageenan and iota-carrageenan were formulated with 0.25%, 0.5% and 1.0%). The viscosity and zeta potential of the formulated gels are studied using HAAKE™ MARS™ rheometer and Zetasiser Nano-Z respectively. Findings revealed both 1% of kappa-carrageenan and 1% iota-carrageenan of pH 4 and pH 7 are the best candidates for nanoparticle drug delivery as the viscosity and zeta potential for 1% kappa-carrageenan (pH 4), 1% kappa-carrageenan (pH 7), 1% iota-carrageenan (pH 4), and 1% iota-carrageenan (pH 7) amongst the highest as such 70.507±6.190, 61.040±3.199, 59.490±7.799, 67.953±2.034 Pa·s, correspondingly with zeta potential value of -19.4 mV, -20.6 mV, -33.1 mV and -30.4 mV. All hydrogels formulated with different concentration were affected by pH values, by having pH value 4 and 7 appeared to have high viscosity with pseudoplastic behaviour based on the rheological profile, except for alginate due to high density sodium alginate was used in this study.

Essential oil mainly contains volatile constituents making it vulnerable upon exposure to the external environment. The encapsulation method is known to protect the bioactive components of the essential oil from damage, in which alginate was used as the hydrogel in this study. This work investigates the physicochemical stability of the peppermint oil encapsulated within alginate beads (1.5% and 2.0%) during its five weeks of storage. Peppermint oil (PO) was added at four different weight ratios to alginate, which were 1:3, 1:2, 1:1, and 2:1. The encapsulation technique involves mixing alginate and oil using a homogeniser. Constituents profiling was done weekly using UV-Vis spectrophotometer and Gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS). Investigation revealed that 1.5% (w/w) alginate in a weight ratio of 1:1 has the highest encapsulation efficiency, which was 42.00%, while for 2.0% (w/w) alginate, the weight ratio of 1:2 gave a maximum encapsulation efficiency of 33.38%. Assessment of the beads' diameter with time showed little physical changes throughout storage time. The constituents profile of the oil indicates a decline in the chemical constituents between a pure sample and the encapsulated peppermint oil. This might be associated with the heat generated during mixing or exposure to the light during the preparation stage. Even so, the analysis of the encapsulated oil each week suggested no striking changes, indicating the stability of the peppermint oil encapsulated in the alginate beads.