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The emergence of pastoralism and animal husbandry has been a critical point in the history of human evolution. Beyond profound behavioural changes in domesticated animals compared to wild ones, characterising the morphological changes associated with domestication process remains challenging. Because reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) can be considered to still be in the early phases of the domestication process, the study of modern populations provides a unique opportunity to examine the impact of captivity and selective breeding on skeletal changes. In this work, we investigated the morphological changes in long limb bone cross-sections using 137 wild and domestic reindeer individuals bred in free-range, in captivity or used for racing and pulling. The shape and shaft cortical thickness of the six long limb bones (i.e., humerus, radioulna, metacarpal, femur, tibia and metatarsal) were measured using a 2D-geometric morphometrics approach taking into account subspecies, sex, body mass and lifestyle differences. These bones are important to understanding functional morphological changes because they can provide information on feeding and locomotor behaviours, as well as on body propulsion and weight bearing. Apart from the effects of taxonomy, etho-ecology and sex, we have found that captivity and selection induced important variations in the size and body mass of modern reindeer. Our results also showed that patterns of variation in cortical bone thickness of long limb bone cross-sections were strongly impacted by body mass and human-imposed restrictions in roaming. This demonstrates that bone cross-sections can provide information on changes in locomotor, reproductive and feeding behaviours induced by the domestication process. These results are valuable not only for (paleo) biologists studying the impact of captivity and selection in ungulates but also for archaeologists exploring the origins of domestication and early herding strategies.

Rangifer tarandus, the northern species including both reindeer and caribou, is a pillar of northern ecosystems and the lives of northern peoples. As the only domestic cervid, reindeer are important not only to the herders and hunters who presently interact with them, but also to zooarchaeologists and palaeontologists tracing their histories. Unfortunately, limited anatomical information on Rangifer tarandus muscles is available beyond descriptions of the large muscle groups. The lower limb and hoof in particular is poorly documented. This is problematic, as this important body part has the potential to be informative in zooarchaeological analyses of habitual activity, especially in regards to historical animal health, movement, and habitual activity. Better understanding of the hoof can additionally be useful to herders and veterinarians seeking to provide veterinary care for living animals. This study has used dissections and comparisons of the reindeer hoof with other domestic ungulates to document both the common and unique structures in Rangifer tarandus hooves, including the presence and attachment points of these structures. As these structures have proved unique, especially in regards to the dewclaw, it is important that other ungulates not be used exclusively in the analysis of Rangifer tarandus remains.

For centuries, reindeer herding has been an integral part of the subsistence and culture among the Sami of northern Fennoscandia. Despite the importance of this husbandry in their history, the timi...

Habitual loading patterns of domesticated animals may differ due to human influence from their wild counterparts. In the early stages of human-reindeer interaction, cargo and draft use was likely important, as well as corralling tame reindeer. This may result to changes in loading as increased (working) or decreased (captive) loading, as well as foraging patterns (digging for lichen from under the snow versus fed working and/or captive reindeer). Our aim is to study whether differences in activity modify variation in bone cross-sectional properties and external dimensions. Our material consists of donated skeletons of modern reindeer: 20 working reindeer (19 racing and one draft), 24 zoo reindeer, and sample of 78 free-ranging/wild reindeer as a reference group. We used general linear modelling to first establish the total variation in cross-sectional properties among wild and free-ranging reindeer, and then to infer how differences in loading modify observed variation among zoo and working reindeer. According to our results, direction of greater bone quantity as well as external dimensions in of radioulna of female reindeer differs from female reference group, likely relating to foraging behavior. External dimensions of humerus differ in working and zoo male reindeer compared to male reference group. Increased robusticity of long bones, especially of tibia among working male reindeer, may indicate increased loading, and increased cortical area of long bones may indicate sedentary lifestyle among female reindeer. The results of this study can be used to understand early stages of reindeer domestication by observing reindeer activity patterns from archaeological material.

Recent developments in physical activity assessment of reindeer offer a possibility to identify reindeer activity in the archaeological record. These include species-specific muscle attachment site scoring, identification of activity-related pathologies, and bone biomechanical properties. In this paper, we employ entheseal site scoring to identify human influence in reindeer feeding patterns in archaeological assemblages from selected Sami archaeological sites (offering site at Unna Saiva, market place at Markkina and town at Tornio) dating c. AD 1200–1800 in view of reindeer domestication. Entheseal changes was scored in muscles attachment sites of proximal radius, previously observed to reflect feeding (digging for lichen from under the snow in winter versus being fed). The observed entheseal scores were compared to the modern reindeer collection containing fed (zoo) and non-fed (free-ranging) reindeer. The comparison of observed entheses between groups suggested that the entheseal changes observed from the reindeer at the Sami offering site at Unna Saiva indicated towards reduced intensity of digging for lichen, probably because they received additional winter fodder. This is supported by stable isotope data suggesting human influence in their diets. Entheseal scores from the other sites did not indicate winter feeding. However, the smaller average size of reindeer from these sites may bias the results. These results suggest that supplementary winter feeding was practiced by (some) early Sami reindeer herders. Our results further emphasize the relevance of entheseal variation of archaeological reindeer bone to infer feeding behaviour and domestication status of reindeer, especially when used in conjunction with other data.

Four coffins dating from the period between the mid-18th and mid-19th centuries from Keminmaa in northern Ostrobothnian Finland were examined using computed-tomography (CT) scanning, a methodology with research applications for exploring human remains, coffins, and funerary textiles. The age and, in two cases, sex of the remains were estimated, and both historical sources and archaeological material suggest that socialization through gender was apparent in this collection. This article explores both the material testimony of care, dedication, and innocence of newborn and infant burials, as well as the socialization process and role of women adolescents in providing children’s funerary materials.

Human-animal relationships have influenced many aspects of human culture and societies, as the lives of humans and animals were intertwined in past societies. Increasing interest in current archaeology towards human-animal relationships calls for a comprehensive consideration of the role of animal movement in these entanglements. This chapter presents different perspectives on the study of animal movement using reindeer as an example. Animal movement – understood as multi-scalar, encompassing everything between long-distance migrations and transhumance-associated mobility patterns to habitual activity associated with specific behaviors and locomotor patterns – is central in many aspects of human lives, ranging from hunter-gatherer societies following the yearly migrations of their prey to agrarian societies where the rhythms of domesticated animals shaped those of human lives. Ultimately, the archaeology of animal movement must examine the kinds of traces animal movement leaves in the archaeological record; what are the implications for the interpretation of archaeological assemblages; and how does the analysis of animal movements help in our understanding of the lives of humans and animals in past societies. In this chapter we discuss reindeer movements, human-reindeer entanglements and meeting points of people and reindeer. Through these examples, we highlight the range of archaeological issues and methods involved in the analysis of animal activity and mobility, and what implications the analysis of animal movement may have for understanding past human-animal relationships and human societies.

Natural mummification occurs in various favorable conditions. Cold environments have produced mummified human remains in northern Finland. These remains buried under the church floors mummified naturally probably through a process resembling freeze-drying. This chapter explores the conditions that led to the mummification of dozens and potentially hundreds of human remains. To conduct our study, we installed logging temperature and humidity measuring devices under the floors of three churches located by the shore of Bothnian Bay in northern Finland. Even our preliminary results show that the humidity and temperature conditions differ between these churches. It is also clear that relative humidity remains very high under the floors of each church. It appears that mummification has occurred in almost “cellar like” conditions. The preservation process was probably aided by the loose laid constructions allowing the air to freely move in the graves carrying the moisture from the remains. Do mumifikacji naturalnej dochodzi pod wpływem różnego rodzaju korzystnych warunków. W północnej Finlandii szczątki zostały zmumifikowane w chłodnym środowisku. Szczątki te, pochowane pod posadzką kościołów, zostały naturalnie zmumifikowane prawdopodobnie w procesie przypominającym liofilizację. Niniejszy tekst analizuje warunki, które doprowadziły do mumifikacji dziesiątek, a być może setek szczątków ludzkich. Na potrzeby badania pod posadzkami trzech kościołów na wybrzeżu Zatoki Botnickiej w północnej Finlandii zainstalowaliśmy urządzenia pomiarowe rejestrujące temperaturę i wilgotność. Już wstępne wyniki naszych badań wskazują, że wilgotność i temperatura różnią się w zależności od kościoła. Wyraźnie też widać, że wilgotność względna pod posadzką każdego z kościołów pozostaje bardzo wysoka. Wygląda na to, że do mumifikacji doszło w niemal piwnicznych warunkach. Proces konserwacji prawdopodobnie ułatwiły luźno rozmieszczone struktury, które umożliwiły swobodny przepływ powietrza w grobach, odprowadzając wilgoć.

Objective This paper explores the potential of analyzing pathological lesions and entheseal changes in the identification of working reindeer. Methods The skeletons of 26 modern working reindeer from Siberia and Northern Finland are analyzed for pathological lesions and entheseal changes. Results Working results in elevated frequencies of pathological lesions, specifically joint disease in cervical and thoracic vertebrae, humeri, os coxae and proximal phalanges. Entheseal scores indicate the intensified use of shoulder flexors and extensors, and possibly elbow, hip and knee flexors and extensors in working reindeer. Conclusion Patterns of skeletal changes can be used in the identification of working reindeer from the past. Significance This study provides first evidence that pathological lesions and entheseal changes can be used to assess draught and cargo use of reindeer. Therefore, the methods presented in this study provide an opportunity to scrutinize past reindeer herding practices, reindeer domestication and human-reindeer cooperation. Limitations Methods need to be applied with caution due to the multifactorial etiologies of pathological lesions and entheseal changes. Suggestions for future research We suggest that in future studies, these methods are applied to archaeological material accompanied by osteometric and contextual analyses.

Entheseal changes and bone cross-sectional properties are used as skeletal activity markers for different animal species, although most studies are targeted on humans. While there is compelling evidence on the association between activity and bone cross-sectional properties, studies on association of entheseal changes to activity have presented more contradictory results. In previous research, covariation between entheseal changes and bone cross-sectional properties is considered a possible result of common underlying factor. However, these studies are performed predominantly on human material. We provide beyond-species scope by studying this covariation in reindeer skeleton. The results will provide platform for discussing bone functional adaptation pathway in which activity modifies entheseal appearance. The material are wild forest reindeer, domesticated free-ranging reindeer and zoo reindeer of Northern and North-East Finland. We found that bone formation in most studied entheses (25 out of 27) were associated with increased values in bone cross-sectional properties and proxies of bone/body size. Features of bone resorption, when significant, were also associated with increased values in bone cross-sectional properties and bone/body size. We conclude that as entheseal changes were associated with bone cross-sectional properties and bone/body size, the observed variation at reindeer entheses likely reflects skeletal robusticity. While causal factors resulting in association between skeletal robusticity and entheseal appearance cannot be evidenced, bone functional adaptation can be hypothesized as at least a partial contributing mechanism to entheseal appearance.

Draught use and being ridden often result in typical pathological patterns in animal skeletons. Moreover, physical activity patterns may be reflected in bone biomechanical properties and entheseal changes at muscle attachment sites. This paper presents the pathologies and entheseal changes observed in four draught and/or racing reindeer skeletons against information on their life histories and discusses the probability of linking the observed changes to their use. The results of this study are a useful point of comparison to researchers working on reindeer and other species of draught animals. However, our results also emphasize that entheseal changes and many pathologies have multifactorial etiologies and that interpretation of skeletal change patterns is not straightforward, even when there is information on the life history of the animal and its complete skeleton can be examined.

Summary: Mummified human remains have been preserved in the cool, well-ventilated crypts of old Finnish churches, which were popular burial sites among the elite of the early modern period. Here, the authors present the results of a computed tomography study of the remains of an early 17th-century vicar of Keminmaa. They examined the preservation of his remains and made several pathological findings; the causes of the latter possibly had a severe impact on his health. He was a large man who achieved relative longevity for his time, although he suffered from conditions related to obesity. There were also potential indications of tuberculosis. Inflammatory changes, for example, had afflicted his spine.

Objectives: The aim of this study was to investigate activity‐induced effects from bone geometric properties of the proximal femur in athletic vs nonathletic healthy females by statistically controlling for variation in body size, lower limb isometric, and dynamic muscle strength, and cross‐sectional area of Musculus gluteus maximus. Methods: The material consists of hip and proximal thigh magnetic resonance images of Finnish female athletes (N = 91) engaged in either high jump, triple jump, soccer, squash, powerlifting, endurance running or swimming, and a group of physically active nonathletic women (N = 20). Cross‐sectional bone geometric properties were calculated for the lesser trochanter, sub‐trochanter, and mid‐shaft of the femur regions. Bone geometric properties were analyzed using a general linear model that included body size, muscle size, and muscle strength as covariates. Results: Body size and isometric muscle strength were positively associated with bone geometric properties at all three cross‐sectional levels of the femur, while muscle size was positively associated with bone properties only at the femur mid‐shaft. When athletes were compared to nonathletic females, triple jump, soccer, and squash resulted in greater values in all studied cross‐sections; high jump and endurance running resulted in greater values at the femoral mid‐shaft cross‐section; and swimming resulted in lower values at sub‐trochanter and femur mid‐shaft cross‐sections. Conclusions: Activity effects from ground impact loading were associated with higher bone geometric values, especially at the femur mid‐shaft, but also at lesser and sub‐trochanter cross‐sections. Bone geometric properties along the femur can be used to assess the mechanical stimuli experienced, where ground impact loading seems to be more important than muscle loading.

This chapter focuses on Scandinavia, Finland, and adjacent regions of Northwest Russia (Karelia and the Kola Peninsula). Urbanization commenced relatively late in Scandinavia and Finland. The chapt ...

We evaluate whether entheseal changes (EC) can be used to reconstruct activity among reindeer to study its domestication. Humans influence reindeer activity patterns through corralling, which renders them less mo- bile than free-ranging reindeer and through use as draught animals, which can result in overuse of certain muscles. There is also variation within free-ranging reindeer in baseline activity levels due to environmental factors. Other sources of variation at entheses include age, sex, pathology, size, and genetic disposition. Here we examine if there are differences in the entheses between zoo versus free-ranging reindeer. We re- corded the entheses of reindeer long bones using a modified EC scoring system. Weight effects were accounted for by performing analyses separately for specimens under and over 95 kg, but unfortunately age information was lacking. We found that several flexor muscle insertion sites in the ulna were more devel- oped among free-ranging reindeer. This difference is likely due to feeding behaviour. The free-ranging ani- mals were digging for lichen from under the snow whereas the zoo reindeer were fed by their keepers. This difference in entheses, however, was found to be significant only among the heavier reindeer. Among the zoo reindeer, the insertion for Subscapularis muscle was more developed, possibly due to increased time spent immobile with the shoulder-bracing muscle apparatus activated. This difference was significant among the heavier deer and nearly statistically significant among the lighter weight reindeer. Domesticated Siberian draught reindeer fell between zoo and free-ranging reindeer in several tibial entheses. According to these re- sults, some forelimb entheses may be useful to study differences in mobility and feeding patterns between groups of reindeer. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Mechanical loading of muscle action is concentrated at muscle attachment sites; thus there may be a potential for site-specific variation in cortical bone thickness. Humeri from an early 20th-century Finnish (Helsinki) and two medieval English (Newcastle, Blackgate and York, Barbican) populations were subjected to pQCT scanning to calculate site-specific cross-sectional cortical bone area (CA) for four locations and to measure cortical thickness at muscle attachment sites and non-attachment sites. We found that CA at 80% of humerus length was significantly reduced compared to more distal cross-sections, which can be due to reduced stresses at the proximal shaft. The principal direction of loading at 80% humerus length was towards mediolateral plane, likely due to fixing the humerus close to the torso. At 35% the main direction of loading was towards anteroposterior plane, reflecting elbow flexing forces. The principal direction of loading varied between populations, sides and sexes at 50% humerus length due to preference between elbow and shoulder joint; thus this location might be useful when trying to infer differences in activity. These changes are likely due to overall shaft adaptation to forces acting at the humerus. In addition, we found a potential for site-specific variation in cortical thickness; cortical bone at muscle attachment sites was significantly thicker compared to non-attachment sites. Lastly, CA at 35% of humerus length and cortical thickness at non-attachment sites decreased with age. These results underline the importance of muscle loading for bone mass preservation as well as indicate that a site-specific variation of bone mass is possible.

The stature/bi-iliac breadth method provides reasonably precise, skeletal frame size (SFS) based body mass (BM) estimations across adults as a whole. In this study, we examine the potential effects of age changes in anthropometric dimensions on the estimation accuracy of SFS-based body mass estimation. We use anthropometric data from the literature and our own skeletal data from two osteological collections to study effects of age on stature, bi-iliac breadth, body mass, and body composition, as they are major components behind body size and body size estimations. We focus on males, as relevant longitudinal data are based on male study samples. As a general rule, lean body mass (LBM) increases through adolescence and early adulthood until people are aged in their 30s or 40s, and starts to decline in the late 40s or early 50s. Fat mass (FM) tends to increase until the mid-50s and declines thereafter, but in more mobile traditional societies it may decline throughout adult life. Because BM is the sum of LBM and FM, it exhibits a curvilinear age-related pattern in all societies. Skeletal frame size is based on stature and bi-iliac breadth, and both of those dimensions are affected by age. Skeletal frame size based body mass estimation tends to increase throughout adult life in both skeletal and anthropometric samples because an age-related increase in bi-iliac breadth more than compensates for an age-related stature decline commencing in the 30s or 40s. Combined with the above-mentioned curvilinear BM change, this results in curvilinear estimation bias. However, for simulations involving low to moderate percent body fat, the stature/bi-iliac method works well in predicting body mass in younger and middle-aged adults. Such conditions are likely to have applied to most human paleontological and archaeological samples.

Studies on the relationship between intensity of activity and entheseal changes (EC) have usually focused on the upper limb. Body size may bias lower limb EC, and thus evaluation of activity intensity may not be applicable. We study the effects of age, body size (as femoral length and femoral head superoinferior height) and intensity of physical activity on the lower limb EC. Our study sample (Helsinki) represents early 20th century Finns where age, sex and occupation are known for the individuals. Due to small number of females only males were included in this study. Based on the reported occupation, the material was divided into heavy (N = 17) and light (N = 6) activity groups. Entheses were observed for ruggedness, and the obtained scores were transformed into binary variables. Intensity of physical activity did not result in differences in EC in the lower limb. Surprisingly, also body size as femoral maximum length and femoral head height did not affect lower limb entheses. Age, a significant biasing factor in the upper limb EC, resulted in changes in some lower limb entheses. This was similar for left and right sides. Our results indicate that there are factors other than size, age and labour intensity affecting EC in the lower limb. Thus, the use of lower limb EC in activity reconstructions is problematic. However, our sample size was small which restricts the generalization of the results. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Techniques that are currently available for estimating stature and body mass from European skeletal remains are all subject to various limitations. Here, we develop new prediction equations based on large skeletal samples representing much of the continent and temporal periods ranging from the Mesolithic to the 20th century. Anatomical reconstruction of stature is carried out for 501 individuals, and body mass is calculated from estimated stature and biiliac breadth in 1,145 individuals. These data are used to derive stature estimation formulae based on long bone lengths and body mass estimation formulae based on femoral head breadth. Prediction accuracy is superior to that of previously available methods. No systematic geographic or temporal variation in prediction errors is apparent, except in tibial estimation of stature, where northern and southern European formulae are necessary because of the presence of relatively longer tibiae in southern samples. Thus, these equations should bebroadly applicable to European Holocene skeletal samples.

Musculoskeletal stress markers (MSM) have been used to reconstruct activity patterns and labour intensity of past populations. Age and size have been found to correlate with MSM, and these aspects should be considered in activity reconstructions. The aim of this study was to find out the nature and the effects of labour intensity, age and size on MSM. Study material were skeletons (N = 108) of individuals of known age, sex and occupation housed at the Natural History Museum, Finland. MSM were scored for Pectoralis major, Deltoid, Teres major and Biceps brachii. These scores were combined to reflect total activity of an individual. Geometric mean of humeral measurements was used as a size indicator and radial tuberosity size was used as a muscle size indicator. Factors explaining MSM were studied using ANCOVA. This included age, size, muscle size, sex, labour intensity, and their interactions. Age and muscle size were the most significant factors explaining MSM, where muscle attachment areas and MSM grow with advancing age. Muscle attachment areas and skeletal frame size were also found to correlate. Least squares regression parameter estimates were used to study the effects of labour intensity, sex and side on MSM. It was found that in early life scores are higher in heavy labour group, but there is less age-related increase in these scores. This could mean that bone is unable to respond to heavy and continuous loading with surface structure. Therefore labour intensity cannot be reliably recorded in old individuals. Also age and size (as reflected in muscle attachment area) affect MSM and these aspects should be considered before making assumptions on labour intensity. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

We investigated the relationship between loading history and bone biomechanical properties used in physical activity reconstructions. These bone properties included bone bending and torsional strength (J), cortical area (CA), the direction of the major axis (theta angle), and element shape ratios determined from cross sections of standardized bone length. In addition, we explored the applicability of anatomically determined cross sections.Our material consisted of hip and proximal thigh magnetic resonance images of Finnish female athletes (N = 91) engaged in high-jump, triple-jump, endurance running, swimming, power-lifting, soccer and squash; along with a group of active non-athlete individuals (N = 20). We used regression analysis for size-adjustment, and the extracted residuals were then used to compare differences in the bone properties between groups.We found that triple-jumpers, soccer players, and squash players had the greatest values in CA and J, swimmers and non-athletes had the smallest, whereas high-jumpers, power-lifters, and endurance runners exhibited interim values. No between-the-group differences in element shape ratios or theta angles were found. We found that influences of activity were similar regardless of whether standardized length or anatomically determined cross sections were used.Extreme (triple-jump) and directionally inconsistent loading (soccer and squash) necessitate a more robust skeleton compared to directionally consistent loading (high-jump, power-lifting, and endurance running) or non-impact loading (swimming and non-athletes). However, not all of these relationships were statistically significant. Thus, information gained about physical activity using bone properties is informative but limited. Accounting for the limitations, the method is applicable on fragmented skeletal material as anatomically determined cross sections can be used.

The custom of burying deceased members of the elite beneath church floors was common in 17th–18th-century Finland. This practice is responsible for the mummification of the remains of an early 17th-century vicar of Kemi parish, Nikolaus Rungius. Computed tomography performed on his remains revealed a possible tuberculous infection in his spine. The purpose of this paper is to further elaborate on findings in support of this diagnosis. Whether Vicar Rungius had tuberculosis is not only interesting considering his personal history, but also in terms of the history of tuberculosis in Northern Finland where the first systematically recorded cases date back to the 18th century.

Greater size of the gluteus maximus muscle in humans compared to non-human primates has been considered an indication of its function in bipedal posture and gait, especially running capabilities. Our aim was to find out how the size of the gluteus maximus muscle varies according to sports while controlling for variation in muscle strength and body weight. Data on gluteus maximus muscle cross-sectional area (MCA) were acquired from magnetic resonance images of the hip region of female athletes (N=91), and physically active controls (N=20). Dynamic muscle force was measured as counter movement jump and isometric knee extension force as leg press. Five exercise loading groups were created: high impact (triple-jumpers and high-jumpers), odd impact (soccer and squash players), high magnitude (power-lifters), repetitive impact (endurance runners) and repetitive non-impact (swimmers) loadings. Individuals in high impact, odd impact or high-magnitude loading groups had greater MCA compared to those of controls, requiring powerful hip extension, trunk stabilization in rapid directional change and high explosive muscle force. Larger body size and greater muscle strength were associated with larger MCA. An increase in dynamic force was associated with larger MCA, but the strength of this relationship varied with body weight. Thus, gluteal adaptation in humans promotes powerful lower limb movements required in sprinting and rapid changes in direction, as well as maintenance and stabilization of an erect trunk which also provides a platform for powerful motions of the upper limbs. These movements have likely evolved to facilitate food acquisition, including hunting.

Objectives We investigated the relationship between loading history and bone biomechanical properties used in physical activity reconstructions. These bone properties included bone bending and torsional strength (J), cortical area (CA), the direction of the major axis (theta angle), and element shape ratios determined from cross sections of standardized bone length. In addition, we explored the applicability of anatomically determined cross sections. Methods Our material consisted of hip and proximal thigh magnetic resonance images of Finnish female athletes (N = 91) engaged in high-jump, triple-jump, endurance running, swimming, power-lifting, soccer and squash; along with a group of active non-athlete individuals (N = 20). We used regression analysis for size-adjustment, and the extracted residuals were then used to compare differences in the bone properties between groups. Results We found that triple-jumpers, soccer players, and squash players had the greatest values in CA and J, swimmers and non-athletes had the smallest, whereas high-jumpers, power-lifters, and endurance runners exhibited interim values. No between-the-group differences in element shape ratios or theta angles were found. We found that influences of activity were similar regardless of whether standardized length or anatomically determined cross sections were used. Conclusions Extreme (triple-jump) and directionally inconsistent loading (soccer and squash) necessitate a more robust skeleton compared to directionally consistent loading (high-jump, power-lifting, and endurance running) or non-impact loading (swimming and non-athletes). However, not all of these relationships were statistically significant. Thus, information gained about physical activity using bone properties is informative but limited. Accounting for the limitations, the method is applicable on fragmented skeletal material as anatomically determined cross sections can be used.

Musculoskeletal stress markers (MSM) at entheses and bone biomechanical properties are used in activity reconstructions. The effect of physical activity on bone biomechanical properties is well established but the relative role of physical activity on MSM is less well known. In this article, it is hypothesized that the same causal mechanisms should affect MSM development as those responsible for bone biomechanical properties. Further, there should be a correlation between MSMs and bone cross-sectional properties as both are considered to reflect physical activity. This was tested using three skeletal samples: early 20th century Finnish (Helsinki) and two medieval English (Blackgate and York) populations. Torsional/average bending rigidity (J) for four cross-sectional locations at 80, 65, 50, and 35% of humeral length from the distal end was calculated and pectoralis major, teres major, and deltoid were scored for MSM. Correlations between MSM and size-standardized J were significant for many comparisons, although they were stronger in males than in females, especially on the right side. In ANOVAs, sample was found to be a significant influence on the right side in both sexes. Using an aggregated MSM score, covariance between J and high MSM scores was again stronger in males. Covariance between J and MSM was found both at cross-sectional locations under muscle insertions and at more distant locations, demonstrating both direct and general effects of muscular loadings applied to diaphyses. Thus, the two types of skeletal markers appear to be related to similar underlying mechanical factors, but effects may also be sex- and sample-specific. Am J Phys Anthropol 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

This study examines the cross sectional shape and biomechanical properties of the radial bone shaft at mid-radial tuberosity (RT) musculoskeletal marker (MSM). This information will provide insight into factors affecting bone modelling at muscle insertions. Radial shaft cross-sectional properties at radial tuberosity area (RTA) have not been previously studied. The material consists of 54 male skeletons derived from autopsies performed during the 1920s and 1930s and housed at the Central Natural History Museum, University of Helsinki. The age, sex and occupation of these individuals are known. We applied a pQCT (peripheral quantitative computed tomography) scan on the mid-site of the radial tuberosity to investigate the cross-sectional shape, the bone mineral density (BMD) and biomechanical properties. Our results indicate that bone modelling does not produce increased wall thickness or BMD at the RT site. Additionally we noticed that aging and physical activity affect the biomechanics of the RT and that the bone distribution at mid-RT is adapted to accommodate the biceps brachii muscle pull. We also found a clear association between RTA and biomechanical properties of mid-RT cross section.