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Congenital myasthenic syndromes (CMSs) are neuromuscular disorders that can be caused by defects in ace-tylcholine receptor (AChR) function. Disease-associated point mutants can reveal the unsuspected functional significance of mutated residues. We identified two pathogenic mutations in the extracellular domain of the AChR α subunit (AChRα) in a patient with myasthenic symptoms since birth: a V188M mutation in the C-loop and a heteroallelic G74C mutation in the main immunogenic region. The G74C mutation markedly reduced surface AChR expression in cultured cells, whereas the V188M mutant was expressed robustly but had severely impaired kinetics. Single-channel patch-clamp analysis indicated that V188M markedly decreased the apparent AChR channel opening rate and gating efficiency. Mutant cycle analysis of energetic coupling among conserved residues within or dispersed around the AChRα C-loop revealed that V188 is functionally linked to Y190 in the C-loop and to D200 in β-strand 10, which connects to the M1 transmembrane domain. Furthermore, V188M weakens inter-residue coupling of K145 in β-strand 7 with Y190 and with D200. Cumulatively, these results indicate that V188 of AChRα is part of an interdependent tetrad that contributes to rearrangement of the C-loop during the initial coupling of agonist binding to channel gating. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drug modulation of the α7 acetylcholine receptor has emerged as a therapeutic strategy for neurological, neurodegenerative, and inflammatory disorders. α7 is a homo-pentamer containing topographically distinct sites for agonists, calcium, and drug modulators with each type of site present in five copies. However, functional relationships between agonist, calcium, and drug modulator sites remain poorly understood. To investigate these relationships, we manipulated the number of agonist binding sites, and monitored potentiation of ACh-elicited single-channel currents through α7 receptors by PNU-120596 (PNU) both in the presence and absence of calcium. When ACh is present alone, it elicits brief, sub-millisecond channel openings, however when ACh is present with PNU it elicits long clusters of potentiated openings. In receptors harboring five agonist binding sites, PNU potentiates regardless of the presence or absence of calcium, whereas in receptors harboring one agonist binding site, PNU potentiates in the presence but not the absence of calcium. By varying the numbers of agonist and calcium binding sites we show that PNU potentiation of α7 depends on a balance between agonist occupancy of the orthosteric sites and calcium occupancy of the allosteric sites. The findings suggest that in the local cellular environment, fluctuations in the concentrations of neurotransmitter and calcium may alter this balance and modulate the ability of PNU to potentiate α7., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Background and Purpose: α4β2 nicotinic acetylcholine (nACh) receptors assemble in two stoichiometric forms, one of which is potentiated by calcium. The sites of calcium binding that underpin potentiation are not known., Experimental Approach: To identify calcium binding sites, we applied cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to each stoichiometric form of the α4β2 nACh receptor in the presence of calcium ions. To test whether the identified calcium sites are linked to potentiation, we generated mutants of anionic residues at the sites, expressed wild type and mutant receptors in clonal mammalian fibroblasts, and recorded ACh-elicited single-channel currents with or without calcium., Key Results: Both cryo-EM and MD simulations show calcium bound to a site between the extracellular and transmembrane domains of each α4 subunit (ECD-TMD site). Substituting alanine for anionic residues at the ECD-TMD site abolishes stoichiometry-selective calcium potentiation, as monitored by single-channel patch clamp electrophysiology. Additionally, MD simulation reveals calcium association at subunit interfaces within the extracellular domain. Substituting alanine for anionic residues at the ECD sites reduces or abolishes stoichiometry-selective calcium potentiation., Conclusions and Implications: Stoichiometry-selective calcium potentiation of the α4β2 nACh receptor is achieved by calcium association with topographically distinct sites framed by anionic residues within the α4 subunit and between the α4 and β2 subunits. Stoichiometry-selective calcium potentiation could result from the greater number of calcium sites in the stoichiometric form with three rather than two α4 subunits. The results are relevant to modulation of signalling via α4β2 nACh receptors in physiological and pathophysiological conditions., (© 2024 British Pharmacological Society.)

We describe molecular-level functional changes in the α4β2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor by a leucine residue insertion in the M2 transmembrane domain of the α4 subunit associated with sleep-related hyperkinetic epilepsy. Measurements of agonist-elicited single-channel currents reveal the primary effect is to stabilize the open channel state, while the secondary effect is to promote reopening of the channel. These dual effects prolong the durations of bursts of channel openings equally for the two major stoichiometric forms of the receptor, (α4) 2 (β2) 3 and (α4) 3 (β2) 2 , indicating the functional impact is independent of mutant copy number per receptor. Altering the location of the residue insertion within M2 shows that functionally pivotal structures are confined to a half turn of the M2 α-helix. Residue substitutions within M2 and surrounding α-helices reveal that both intrasubunit and intersubunit interactions mediate the increase in burst duration. These interactions impacting burst duration depend linearly on the size and hydrophobicity of the substituting residue. Together, the results reveal a novel structural region of the α4β2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor in which interhelical interactions tune the stability of the open channel state., Competing Interests: Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest with the contents of this article., (Copyright © 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Pores through ion channels rapidly transport small inorganic ions along their electrochemical gradients. Here, applying single-channel electrophysiology and mutagenesis to the archetypal muscle nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (AChR) channel, we show that a conserved pore-peripheral salt bridge partners with those in the other subunits to regulate ion transport. Disrupting the salt bridges in all five receptor subunits greatly decreases the amplitude of the unitary current and increases its fluctuations. However, disrupting individual salt bridges has unequal effects that depend on the structural status of the other salt bridges. The AChR ε- and δ-subunits are structurally unique in harboring a putative palmitoylation site near each salt bridge and bordering the lipid membrane. The effects of disrupting the palmitoylation sites mirror those of disrupting the salt bridges, but the effect of disrupting either of these structures depends on the structural status of the other. Thus, rapid ion transport through the AChR channel is maintained by functionally interdependent salt bridges linking the pore to the lipid membrane., Competing Interests: Competing interests statement:The authors declare no competing interest.

The α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor is a pentameric ligand-gated ion channel that plays an important role in cholinergic signaling throughout the nervous system. Its unique physiological characteristics and implications in neurological disorders and inflammation make it a promising but challenging therapeutic target. Positive allosteric modulators overcome limitations of traditional α7 agonists, but their potentiation mechanisms remain unclear. Here, we present high-resolution structures of α7-modulator complexes, revealing partially overlapping binding sites but varying conformational states. Structure-guided functional and computational tests suggest that differences in modulator activity arise from the stable rotation of a channel gating residue out of the pore. We extend the study using a time-resolved cryoelectron microscopy (cryo-EM) approach to reveal asymmetric state transitions for this homomeric channel and also find that a modulator with allosteric agonist activity exploits a distinct channel-gating mechanism. These results define mechanisms of α7 allosteric modulation and activation with implications across the pentameric receptor superfamily., Competing Interests: Declaration of interests The authors declare no competing interests., (Copyright © 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Although nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) are commonly associated with neurons in the brain and periphery, recent data indicate that they are also expressed in non-neuronal tissues. We recently found the alpha7 (α7nAChR) subunit is highly expressed in human airway smooth muscle (hASM) with substantial increase in asthmatics, but their functionality remains unknown. We investigated the location and functional role of α7nAChRs in hASM cells from normal versus mild-moderate asthmatic patients. Immunostaining and protein analyses showed α7nAChR in the plasma membrane including in asthmatics. In asthmatic hASM, patch-clamp recordings revealed significantly higher functional homomeric α7nAChR channels. Real-time fluorescence imaging showed nicotine, via α7nAChR, increases intracellular Ca 2+ ([Ca 2+ ] i ) independent of ACh effects, particularly in asthmatic hASM, while cellular traction force microscopy showed nicotine-induced contractility including in asthmatics. These results indicate functional homomeric and heteromeric nAChRs that are increased in asthmatic hASM, with pharmacology that likely differ owing to different subunit interfaces that form the orthosteric sites. nAChRs may represent a novel target in alleviating airway hyperresponsiveness in asthma. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Cigarette smoking and vaping exacerbate asthma. Understanding the mechanisms of nicotine effects in asthmatic airways is important. This study demonstrates that functional alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (α7nAChRs) are expressed in human airway smooth muscle, including from asthmatics, and enhance intracellular calcium and contractility. Although a7nAChRs are associated with neuronal pathways, α7nAChR in smooth muscle suggests inhaled nicotine (e.g., vaping) can directly influence airway contractility. Targeting α7nAChR may represent a novel approach to alleviating airway hyperresponsiveness in asthma.

Mechanisms behind the fluctuations in the ionic current through single acetylcholine receptor (AChR) channels have remained elusive. In a recent study of muscle AChR we showed that mutation of a conserved intramembrane salt bridge in the β- and δ-subunits markedly increased fluctuations in the open channel current that extended from low to high frequency. Here, we show that extracellular divalent cations reduce the high-frequency fluctuations and increase the low-frequency fluctuations. The low-frequency fluctuations are shown to arise from steps between two current levels, with the ratio of the time at each level changing e-fold for a 70 mV increase in membrane potential, indicating modulation by a charged element within the membrane field. Increasing the charge on the ion selectivity filter biases the ratio of current levels equivalent to a 50 mV increase in membrane potential but does not alter the voltage dependence of the ratio. The magnitudes of the voltage dependence and voltage bias allow estimates of the distance between the ion selectivity filter and the voltage-sensing element. Studies with either calcium or magnesium show that the two divalent cations synergize to increase the low-frequency fluctuations, whereas they act independently to decrease the high-frequency fluctuations, indicating multiple divalent cation binding sites. Molecular dynamics simulations applied to the structure of the Torpedo AChR reveal that mutation of the salt bridge alters the equilibrium positions and dynamics of residues local to the site of the mutation and within the adjacent ion selectivity filter in a calcium-dependent manner. Thus, disruption of a conserved intramembrane salt bridge in the muscle AChR induces fluctuations in open channel current that are sensitive to divalent cation binding at multiple sites and modulated by a charged element within the membrane field., Competing Interests: Declaration of interests The authors declare no competing interests., (Copyright © 2023 Biophysical Society. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

We describe genetic and molecular-level functional alterations in the α4β2 neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) from a patient with sleep-related hyperkinetic epilepsy and a family history of epilepsy. Genetic sequencing revealed a heterozygous variant c.851C>G in the CHRNA4 gene encoding the α4 subunit, resulting in the missense mutation p.Ser284Trp. Patch clamp recordings from genetically engineered nAChRs incorporating the α4-Ser284Trp subunit revealed aberrant channel openings in the absence of agonist and markedly prolonged openings in its presence. Measurements of single channel current amplitude distinguished two pentameric stoichiometries of the variant nAChR containing either two or three copies of the α4-Ser284Trp subunit, each exhibiting aberrant spontaneous and prolonged agonist-elicited channel openings. The α4-Ser284 residue is highly conserved and located within the M2 transmembrane α-helix that lines the ion channel. When mapped onto the receptor’s three-dimensional structure, the larger Trp substitution sterically clashes with the M2 α-helix from the neighboring subunit, promoting expansion of the pore and stabilizing the open relative to the closed conformation of the channel. Together, the clinical, genetic, functional, and structural observations demonstrate that α4-Ser284Trp enhances channel opening, predicting increased membrane excitability and a pathogenic seizure phenotype.

Background and Purpose: α4β2 nicotinic ACh receptors (nAChRs) comprise the most abundant class of nAChRs in the nervous system. They assemble in two stoichiometric forms, each exhibiting distinct functional and pharmacological signatures. However, whether one or both forms are modulated by calcium or magnesium has not been established., Experimental Approach: To assess the functional consequences of calcium and magnesium, each stoichiometric form was expressed in clonal mammalian fibroblasts and single-channel currents were recorded in the presence of a range of ACh concentrations., Key Results: In the absence of divalent cations, each stoichiometric form exhibits high unitary conductance and simple gating kinetics composed of solitary channel openings or short bursts of openings. However, in the presence of calcium and magnesium, the conductance and gating kinetics change in a stoichiometry-dependent manner. Calcium and magnesium reduce the conductance of both stoichiometric forms, with each cation producing an equivalent reduction, but the reduction is greater for the (α4) 2 (β2) 3 form. Moreover, divalent cations promote efficient channel opening of the (α4) 3 (β2) 2 stoichiometry, while minimally affecting the (α4) 2 (β2) 3 stoichiometry. For the (α4) 3 (β2) 2 stoichiometry, at high but not low ACh concentrations, calcium in synergy with magnesium promote clustering of channel openings into episodes of many openings in quick succession., Conclusion and Implications: Modulation of the α4β2 nAChR by divalent cations depends on the ACh concentration, the type of cation and the subunit stoichiometry. The functional consequences of modulation are expected to depend on the regional distributions of the stoichiometric forms and synaptic versus extrasynaptic locations of the receptors., (© 2021 The British Pharmacological Society.)

The α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor plays critical roles in the central nervous system and in the cholinergic inflammatory pathway. This ligand-gated ion channel assembles as a homopentamer, is exceptionally permeable to Ca 2+ , and desensitizes faster than any other Cys-loop receptor. The α7 receptor has served as a prototype for the Cys-loop superfamily yet has proven refractory to structural analysis. We present cryo-EM structures of the human α7 nicotinic receptor in a lipidic environment in resting, activated, and desensitized states, illuminating the principal steps in the gating cycle. The structures also reveal elements that contribute to its function, including a C-terminal latch that is permissive for channel opening, and an anionic ring in the extracellular vestibule that contributes to its high conductance and calcium permeability. Comparisons among the α7 structures provide a foundation for mapping the gating cycle and reveal divergence in gating mechanisms in the Cys-loop receptor superfamily., Competing Interests: Declaration of interests The authors declare no competing interests., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Whether ion channel gating is independent of ion permeation has been an enduring, unresolved question. Here, applying single channel recording to the archetypal muscle nicotinic receptor, we unmask coupling between channel gating and ion permeation by structural perturbation of a conserved intramembrane salt bridge. A charge-neutralizing mutation suppresses channel gating, reduces unitary current amplitude, and increases fluctuations of the open channel current. Power spectra of the current fluctuations exhibit low- and high-frequency Lorentzian components, which increase in charge-neutralized mutant receptors. After aligning channel openings and closings at the time of transition, the average unitary current exhibits asymmetric relaxations just after channel opening and before channel closing. A theory in which structural motions contribute jointly to channel gating and ion conduction describes both the power spectrum and the current relaxations. Coupling manifests as a transient increase in the open channel current upon channel opening and a decrease upon channel closing., Competing Interests: JS, SS No competing interests declared, (© 2021, Strikwerda and Sine.)

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) belong to the superfamily of pentameric ligand-gated ion channels, and in neuronal tissues, are assembled from various types of α- and β-subunits. Furthermore, the subunits α4 and β2 assemble in two predominant stoichiometric forms, (α4) 2 (β2) 3 and (α4) 3 (β2) 2 , forming receptors with dramatically different sensitivity to agonists and allosteric modulators. However, mechanisms by which the two stoichiometric forms are regulated are not known. Here, using heterologous expression in mammalian cells, single-channel patch-clamp electrophysiology, and calcium imaging, we show that the ER-resident protein NACHO selectively promotes the expression of the (α4) 2 (β2) 3 stoichiometry, whereas the cytosolic molecular chaperone 14-3-3η selectively promotes the expression of the (α4) 3 (β2) 2 stoichiometry. Thus, NACHO and 14-3-3η are potential physiological regulators of subunit stoichiometry, and are potential drug targets for re-balancing the stoichiometry in pathological conditions involving α4β2 nAChRs such as nicotine dependence and epilepsy.

The α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) is among the most abundant types of nAChR in the brain, yet the ability of nerve-released ACh to activate α7 remains enigmatic. In particular, a major population of α7 resides in extra-synaptic regions where the ACh concentration is reduced, owing to dilution and enzymatic hydrolysis, yet ACh shows low potency in activating α7. Using high-resolution single-channel recording techniques, we show that extracellular calcium is a powerful potentiator of α7 activated by low concentrations of ACh. Potentiation manifests as robust increases in the frequency of channel opening and the average duration of the openings. Molecular dynamics simulations reveal that calcium binds to the periphery of the five ligand binding sites and is framed by a pair of anionic residues from the principal and complementary faces of each site. Mutation of residues identified by simulation prevents calcium from potentiating ACh-elicited channel opening. An anionic residue is conserved at each of the identified positions in all vertebrate species of α7. Thus, calcium associates with a novel structural motif on α7 and is an obligate cofactor in regions of limited ACh concentration., (© 2020 Natarajan et al.)

Genetic variants causing the fast-channel congenital myasthenic syndrome (CMS) have been identified in the α, δ, and ε but not the β subunit of acetylcholine receptor (AChR). A 16-year-old girl with severe myasthenia had low-amplitude and fast-decaying miniature endplate potentials. Mutation analysis revealed two heteroallelic variants in CHRNB1 encoding the AChR β subunit: a novel c.812C>T (p.P248L) variant in M1-M2 linker (p.P271L in HGVS nomenclature), and a ~430 bp deletion causing loss of exon 8 leading to frame-shift and a premature stop codon (p.G251Dfs*21). P248 is conserved in all β subunits of different species, but not in other AChR subunits. Measurements of radio-labeled α-bungarotoxin binding show that βP248L reduces AChR expression to 60% of wild-type. Patch clamp recordings of ACh-elicited single channel currents demonstrate that βP248L shortens channel opening bursts from 3.3 ms to 1.2 ms, and kinetic analyses predict that the decay of the synaptic response is accelerated 2.4-fold due to reduced probability of channel reopening. Substituting βP248 with threonine, alanine or glycine reduces the burst duration to 2.3, 1.7, and 1.5 ms, respectively. In non-β subunits, substituting leucine for residues corresponding to βP248 prolongs the burst duration to 4.5 ms in the α subunit, shortens it to 2.2 ms in the δ subunit, and has no effect in the ε subunit. Conversely, substituting proline for residues corresponding to βP248 prolongs the burst duration to 8.7 ms in the α subunit, to 4.6 ms in the δ subunit, but has no effect in the ε subunit. Thus, this fast channel CMS is caused by the dual defects of βP248L in reducing expression of the mutant receptor and accelerating the decay of the synaptic response. The results also reveal subunit-specific contributions of the M1-M2 linker to the durations of channel opening bursts., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest None., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The ten types of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor α-subunits show substantial sequence homology, yet some types confer high affinity for α-bungarotoxin, whereas others confer negligible affinity. Combining sequence alignments with structural data reveals three residues unique to α-toxin-refractory α-subunits that coalesce within the 3D structure of the α4β2 receptor and are predicted to fit between loops I and II of α-bungarotoxin. Mutating any one of these residues, Lys189, Ile196 or Lys153, to the α-toxin-permissive counterpart fails to confer α-bungarotoxin binding. However, mutating both Lys189 and Ile196 affords α-bungarotoxin binding with an apparent dissociation constant of 104 nM, while combining mutation of Lys153 reduces the dissociation constant to 22 nM. Analogous residue substitutions also confer high affinity α-bungarotoxin binding upon α-toxin-refractory α2 and α3 subunits. α4β2 receptors engineered to bind α-bungarotoxin exhibit slow rates of α-toxin association and dissociation, and competition by cholinergic ligands typical of muscle nicotinic receptors. Receptors engineered to bind α-bungarotoxin co-sediment with muscle nicotinic receptors on sucrose gradients, and mirror single channel signatures of their α-toxin-refractory counterparts. Thus the inability of α-bungarotoxin to bind to neuronal nicotinic receptors arises from three unique and interdependent residues that coalesce within the receptor's 3D structure., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To characterize the molecular and phenotypic basis of a severe slow-channel congenital myasthenic syndrome (SCCMS)., Methods: Intracellular and single-channel recordings from patient endplates; alpha-bungarotoxin binding studies; direct sequencing of AChR genes; microsatellite analysis; kinetic analysis of AChR activation; homology modeling of adult human AChR structure., Results: Among 24 variants reported to cause SCCMS only two appear in the AChR δ-subunit. We here report a 16-year-old patient harboring a novel δL273F mutation (δL294F in HGVS nomenclature) in the second transmembrane domain (M2) of the AChR δ subunit. Kinetic analyses with ACh and the weak agonist choline indicate that δL273F prolongs the channel opening bursts 9.4-fold due to a 75-fold increase in channel gating efficiency, whereas a previously identified εL269F mutation (εL289F in HGVS nomenclature) at an equivalent location in the AChR ε-subunit prolongs channel opening bursts 4.4-fold due to a 30-fold increase in gating efficiency. Structural modeling of AChR predicts that inter-helical hydrophobic interactions between the mutant residue in the δ and ε subunit and nearby M2 domain residues in neighboring α subunits contribute to structural stability of the open relative to the closed channel states., Interpretation: The greater increase in gating efficiency by δL273F than by εL269F explains why δL273F has more severe clinical effects. Both δL273F and εL269F impair channel gating by disrupting hydrophobic interactions with neighboring α-subunits. Differences in the extent of impairment of channel gating in δ and ε mutant receptors suggest unequal contributions of ε/α and δ/α subunit pairs to gating efficiency., (© 2019 The Authors. Annals of Clinical and Translational Neurology published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc on behalf of American Neurological Association.)

Neuronal nicotinic receptors containing α4 and β2 subunits assemble in two pentameric stoichiometries, (α4) 3 (β2) 2 and (α4) 2 (β2) 3 , each with distinct pharmacological signatures; (α4) 3 (β2) 2 receptors are strongly potentiated by the drug NS9283, whereas (α4) 2 (β2) 3 receptors are unaffected. Despite this stoichiometry-selective pharmacology, the molecular identity of the target for NS9283 remains elusive. Here, studying (α4) 3 (β2) 2 receptors, we show that mutations at either the principal face of the β2 subunit or the complementary face of the α4 subunit prevent NS9283 potentiation of ACh-elicited single-channel currents, suggesting the drug targets the β2-α4 pseudo-agonist sites, the α4-α4 agonist site, or both sites. To distinguish among these possibilities, we generated concatemeric receptors with mutations at specified subunit interfaces, and monitored the ability of NS9283 to potentiate ACh-elicited single-channel currents. We find that a mutation at the principal face of the β2 subunit at either β2-α4 pseudo-agonist site suppresses potentiation, whereas mutation at the complementary face of the α4 subunit at the α4-α4 agonist site allows a significant potentiation. Thus, monitoring potentiation of single concatemeric receptor channels reveals that the β2-α4 pseudo-agonist sites are required for stoichiometry-selective drug action. Together with the recently determined structure of the (α4) 3 (β2) 2 receptor, the findings have implications for structure-guided drug design.

Alcohol consumption affects many organs and tissues, including skeletal muscle. However, the molecular mechanism of ethanol action on skeletal muscle remains unclear. Here, using molecular dynamics simulations and single channel recordings, we show that ethanol interacts with a negatively charged amino acid within an extracellular region of the neuromuscular nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR), thereby altering its global conformation and reducing the single channel current amplitude. Charge reversal of the negatively charged amino acid abolishes the nAChR-ethanol interaction. Moreover, using transgenic animals harboring the charge-reversal mutation, ex vivo measurements of muscle force production show that ethanol counters fatigue in wild type but not homozygous αE83K mutant animals. In accord, in vivo studies of motor coordination following ethanol administration reveal an approximately twofold improvement for wild type compared to homozygous mutant animals. Together, the converging results from molecular to animal studies suggest that ethanol counters muscle fatigue through its interaction with neuromuscular nAChRs., Competing Interests: The authors declare no competing interests.

Over the past four decades, the patch clamp technique and nicotinic ACh (nACh) receptors have established an enduring partnership. Like all good partnerships, each partner has proven significant in its own right, while their union has spurred innumerable advances in life science research. A member and prototype of the superfamily of pentameric ligand-gated ion channels, the nACh receptor is a chemo-electric transducer, binding ACh released from nerves and rapidly opening its channel to cation flow to elicit cellular excitation. A subject of a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, the patch clamp technique provides unprecedented resolution of currents through single ion channels in their native cellular environments. Here, focusing on muscle and α7 nACh receptors, we describe the extraordinary contribution of the patch clamp technique towards understanding how they activate in response to neurotransmitter, how subtle structural and mechanistic differences among nACh receptor subtypes translate into significant physiological differences, and how nACh receptors are being exploited as therapeutic drug targets., Linked Articles: This article is part of a themed section on Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v175.11/issuetoc/., (© 2017 The British Pharmacological Society.)

The muscle acetylcholine (ACh) receptor transduces a chemical into an electrical signal, but the efficiency of transduction, or efficacy, depends on the particular agonist. It is often presumed that full and partial agonists elicit the same structural changes after occupancy of their binding sites but with differing speed and efficiency. In this study, we tested the alternative hypothesis that full and partial agonists elicit distinct structural changes. To probe structural changes, we substituted cysteines for pairs of residues that are juxtaposed in the three-dimensional structure and recorded agonist-elicited single-channel currents before and after the addition of an oxidizing reagent. The results revealed multiple cysteine pairs for which agonist-elicited channel opening changes after oxidative cross-linking. Moreover, we found that the identity of the agonist determined whether cross-linking affects channel opening. For the αD97C/αY127C pair at the principal face of the subunit, cross-linking markedly suppressed channel opening by full but not partial agonists. Conversely, for the αD97C/αK125C pair, cross-linking impaired channel opening by the weak agonist choline but not other full or partial agonists. For the αT51C/αK125C pair, cross-linking enhanced channel opening by the full agonist ACh but not other full or partial agonists. At the complementary face of the subunit, cross-linking between pairs within the same β hairpin suppressed channel opening by ACh, whereas cross-linking between pairs from adjacent β hairpins was without effect for all agonists. In each case, the effects of cross-linking were reversed after addition of a reducing reagent, and receptors with single cysteine substitutions remained unaltered after addition of either oxidizing or reducing reagents. These findings show that, in the course of opening the receptor channel, different agonists elicit distinct structural changes., (© 2018 Sine and Mukhtasimova.)

We identify 2 homozygous mutations in the ε-subunit of the muscle acetylcholine receptor (AChR) in 3 patients with severe congenital myasthenia: εR218W in the pre-M1 region in 2 patients and εE184K in the β8-β9 linker in 1 patient. Arg218 is conserved in all eukaryotic members of the Cys-loop receptor superfamily, while Glu184 is conserved in the α-, δ-, and ε-subunits of AChRs from all species. εR218W reduces channel gating efficiency 338-fold and AChR expression on the cell surface 5-fold, whereas εE184K reduces channel gating efficiency 11-fold but does not alter AChR cell surface expression. Determinations of the effective channel gating rate constants, combined with mutant cycle analyses, demonstrate strong energetic coupling between εR218 and εE184, and between εR218 and εE45 from the β1-β2 linker, as also observed for equivalent residues in the principal coupling pathway of the α-subunit. Thus, efficient and rapid gating of the AChR channel is achieved not only by coupling between conserved residues within the principal coupling pathway of the α-subunit, but also between corresponding residues in the ε-subunit.

Acetylcholine receptors comprising α4 and β2 subunits are the most abundant class of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor in the brain. They contribute to cognition, reward, mood, and nociception and are implicated in a range of neurological disorders. Previous measurements of whole-cell macroscopic currents showed that α4 and β2 subunits assemble in two predominant pentameric stoichiometries, which differ in their sensitivity to agonists, antagonists, and allosteric modulators. Here we compare agonist-elicited single channel currents from receptors assembled with an excess of either the α4 or β2 subunit, forming receptor populations biased toward one or the other stoichiometry, with currents from receptors composed of five concatemeric subunits in which the subunit stoichiometry is predetermined. Our results associate each subunit stoichiometry with a unique single channel conductance, mean open channel lifetime, and sensitivity to the allosteric potentiator 3-[3-(3-pyridinyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl]benzonitrile (NS-9283). Receptors with the composition (α4β2) 2 α4 exhibit high single channel conductance, brief mean open lifetime, and strong potentiation by NS-9283, whereas receptors with the composition (α4β2) 2 β2 exhibit low single channel conductance and long mean open lifetime and are not potentiated by NS-9283. Thus single channel current measurements reveal bases for the distinct functional and pharmacological properties endowed by different stoichiometries of α4 and β2 subunits and establish pentameric concatemers as a means to delineate interactions between subunits that confer these properties., (© 2017 by The American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Inc.)

The acetylcholine receptor (AChR) from vertebrate skeletal muscle initiates voluntary movement, and its kinetics of activation are crucial for maintaining the safety margin for neuromuscular transmission. Furthermore, the kinetic mechanism of the muscle AChR serves as an archetype for understanding activation mechanisms of related receptors from the Cys-loop superfamily. Here we record currents through single muscle AChR channels with improved temporal resolution approaching half an order of magnitude over our previous best. A range of concentrations of full and partial agonists are used to elicit currents from human wild-type and gain-of-function mutant AChRs. For each agonist-receptor combination, rate constants are estimated from maximum likelihood analysis using a kinetic scheme comprised of agonist binding, priming, and channel gating steps. The kinetic scheme and rate constants are tested by stochastic simulation, followed by incorporation of the experimental step response, sampling rate, background noise, and filter bandwidth. Analyses of the simulated data confirm all rate constants except those for channel gating, which are overestimated because of the established effect of noise on the briefest dwell times. Estimates of the gating rate constants were obtained through iterative simulation followed by kinetic fitting. The results reveal that the agonist association rate constants are independent of agonist occupancy but depend on receptor state, whereas those for agonist dissociation depend on occupancy but not on state. The priming rate and equilibrium constants increase with successive agonist occupancy, and for a full agonist, the forward rate constant increases more than the equilibrium constant; for a partial agonist, the forward rate and equilibrium constants increase equally. The gating rate and equilibrium constants also increase with successive agonist occupancy, but unlike priming, the equilibrium constants increase more than the forward rate constants. As observed for a full and a partial agonist, the gain-of-function mutation affects the relationship between rate and equilibrium constants for priming but not for channel gating. Thus, resolving brief single channel currents distinguishes priming from gating steps and reveals how the corresponding rate and equilibrium constants depend on agonist occupancy., (© 2016 Mukhtasimova et al.)

We identify two heteroallelic mutations in the acetylcholine receptor δ-subunit from a patient with severe myasthenic symptoms since birth: a novel δD140N mutation in the signature Cys-loop and a mutation in intron 7 of the δ-subunit gene that disrupts splicing of exon 8. The mutated Asp residue, which determines the disease phenotype, is conserved in all eukaryotic members of the Cys-loop receptor superfamily. Studies of the mutant acetylcholine receptor expressed in HEK 293 cells reveal that δD140N attenuates cell surface expression and apparent channel gating, predicting a reduced magnitude and an accelerated decay of the synaptic response, thus reducing the safety margin for neuromuscular transmission. Substituting Asn for Asp at equivalent positions in the α-, β-, and ϵ-subunits also suppresses apparent channel gating, but the suppression is much greater in the α-subunit. Mutant cycle analysis applied to single and pairwise mutations reveals that αAsp-138 is energetically coupled to αArg-209 in the neighboring pre-M1 domain. Our findings suggest that the conserved αAsp-138 and αArg-209 contribute to a principal pathway that functionally links the ligand binding and pore domains., (© 2016 by The American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Inc.)

α-Bungarotoxin (α-Btx) binds to the five agonist binding sites on the homopentameric α7-acetylcholine receptor, yet the number of bound α-Btx molecules required to prevent agonist-induced channel opening remains unknown. To determine the stoichiometry for α-Btx blockade, we generate receptors comprised of wild-type and α-Btx-resistant subunits, tag one of the subunit types with conductance mutations to report subunit stoichiometry, and following incubation with α-Btx, monitor opening of individual receptor channels with defined subunit stoichiometry. We find that a single α-Btx-sensitive subunit confers nearly maximal suppression of channel opening, despite four binding sites remaining unoccupied by α-Btx and accessible to the agonist. Given structural evidence that α-Btx locks the agonist binding site in an inactive conformation, we conclude that the dominant mechanism of antagonism is non-competitive, originating from conformational arrest of the binding sites, and that the five α7 subunits are interdependent and maintain conformational symmetry in the open channel state.

Neuronal α7 nicotinic receptors elicit rapid cation influx in response to acetylcholine (ACh) or its hydrolysis product choline. They contribute to cognition, synaptic plasticity, and neuroprotection and have been implicated in neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric disorders. α7, however, often localizes distal to sites of nerve-released ACh and binds ACh with low affinity, and thus elicits its biological response with low agonist occupancy. To assess the function of α7 when ACh occupies fewer than five of its identical binding sites, we measured the open-channel lifetime of individual receptors in which four of the five ACh binding sites were disabled. To improve the time resolution of the inherently brief α7 channel openings, background mutations or a potentiator was used to increase open duration. We find that, in receptors with only one intact binding site, the open-channel lifetime is indistinguishable from receptors with five intact binding sites, counter to expectations from prototypical neurotransmitter-gated ion channels where the open-channel lifetime increases with the number of binding sites occupied by agonist. Replacing the membrane-embedded domain of α7 by that of the related 5-HT3A receptor increases the number of sites that need to be occupied to achieve the maximal open-channel lifetime, thus revealing a unique interdependence between the detector and actuator domains of these receptors. The distinctive ability of a single occupancy to elicit a full biological response adapts α7 to volume transmission, a prevalent mechanism of ACh-mediated signaling in the nervous system and nonneuronal cells.

The crystal structure of a pentameric α7 ligand-binding domain chimaera with bound α-btx (α-bungarotoxin) showed that of the five conserved aromatic residues in α7, only Tyr¹⁸⁴ in loop C of the ligand-binding site was required for high-affinity binding. To determine whether the contribution of Tyr¹⁸⁴ depends on local residues, we generated mutations in an α7/5HT(3A) (5-hydroxytryptamine type 3A) receptor chimaera, individually and in pairs, and measured ¹²⁵I-labelled α-btx binding. The results show that mutations of individual residues near Tyr¹⁸⁴ do not affect α-btx affinity, but pairwise mutations decrease affinity in an energetically coupled manner. Kinetic measurements show that the affinity decreases arise through increases in the α-btx dissociation rate with little change in the association rate. Replacing loop C in α7 with loop C from the α-btx-insensitive α2 or α3 subunits abolishes high-affinity α-btx binding, but preserves acetylcholine-elicited single channel currents. However, in both the α2 and α3 construct, mutating either residue that flanks Tyr¹⁸⁴ to its α7 counterpart restores high-affinity α-btx binding. Analogously, in α7, mutating both residues that flank Tyr¹⁸⁴ to the α2 or α3 counterparts abolishes high-affinity α-btx binding. Thus interaction between Tyr¹⁸⁴ and local residues contributes to high-affinity subtype-selective α-btx binding.

To identify high-affinity interactions between long-chain α-neurotoxins and nicotinic receptors, we determined the crystal structure of the complex between α-btx (α-bungarotoxin) and a pentameric ligand-binding domain constructed from the human α7 AChR (acetylcholine receptor) and AChBP (acetylcholine-binding protein). The complex buries ~2000 Ų (1 Å=0.1 nm) of surface area, within which Arg³⁶ and Phe³² from finger II of α-btx form a π-cation stack that aligns edge-to-face with the conserved Tyr¹⁸⁴ from loop-C of α7, while Asp³⁰ of α-btx forms a hydrogen bond with the hydroxy group of Tyr¹⁸⁴. These inter-residue interactions diverge from those in a 4.2 Å structure of α-ctx (α-cobratoxin) bound to AChBP, but are similar to those in a 1.94 Å structure of α-btx bound to the monomeric α1 extracellular domain, although compared with the monomer-bound complex, the α-btx backbone exhibits a large shift relative to the protein surface. Mutational analyses show that replacing Tyr¹⁸⁴ with a threonine residue abolishes high-affinity α-btx binding, whereas replacing with a phenylalanine residue maintains high affinity. Comparison of the α-btx complex with that coupled to the agonist epibatidine reveals structural rearrangements within the binding pocket and throughout each subunit. The overall findings highlight structural principles by which α-neurotoxins interact with nicotinic receptors.

Drug modulation of ion channels is a powerful means to alter physiological responses for therapeutic benefit, yet the structural bases of modulation remain poorly understood. Here we study potentiation of nicotinic α7 acetylcholine receptors, which are emerging drug targets in several neurological disorders. α7 receptors are ligand-gated ion channels composed of five identical subunits, each bearing a site for the potentiating drug PNU-120596 (PNU). How the individual subunits contribute to PNU potentiation is not known. Taking advantage of a PNU-resistant mutant, we generated receptors composed of normal and PNU-resistant subunits and tagged one of the subunits with conductance mutations to report subunit stoichiometry. We then used patch clamp recording to monitor PNU potentiation of single α7 receptors with defined stoichiometry in real time. We find that potentiation depends steeply on the number of PNU-resistant subunits and that four, and possibly five, subunits must be sensitive to PNU for potentiation to occur. Thus, by monitoring the activity of every possible subunit combination, our findings predict that at the macroscopic level, PNU potentiation is highly cooperative.

Gating of the muscle-type acetylcholine receptor (AChR) channel depends on communication between the ACh-binding site and the remote ion channel. A key region for this communication is located within the structural transition zone between the ligand-binding and pore domains. Here, stemming from β-strand 10 of the binding domain, the invariant αArg209 lodges within the hydrophobic interior of the subunit and is essential for rapid and efficient channel gating. Previous charge-reversal experiments showed that the contribution of αArg209 to channel gating depends strongly on αGlu45, also within this region. Here we determine whether the contribution of αArg209 to channel gating depends on additional anionic or electron-rich residues in this region. Also, to reconcile diverging findings in the literature, we compare the dependence of αArg209 on αGlu45 in AChRs from different species, and compare the full agonist ACh with the weak agonist choline. Our findings reveal that the contribution of αArg209 to channel gating depends on additional nearby electron-rich residues, consistent with both electrostatic and steric contributions. Furthermore, αArg209 and αGlu45 show a strong interdependence in both human and mouse AChRs, whereas the functional consequences of the mutation αE45R depend on the agonist. The emerging picture shows a multifaceted network of interdependent residues that are required for communication between the ligand-binding and pore domains., (Copyright © 2013 Biophysical Society. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The synapse is a localized neurohumoral contact between a neuron and an effector cell and may be considered the quantum of fast intercellular communication. Analogously, the postsynaptic neurotransmitter receptor may be considered the quantum of fast chemical to electrical transduction. Our understanding of postsynaptic receptors began to develop about a hundred years ago with the demonstration that electrical stimulation of the vagus nerve released acetylcholine and slowed the heart beat. During the past 50 years, advances in understanding postsynaptic receptors increased at a rapid pace, owing largely to studies of the acetylcholine receptor (AChR) at the motor endplate. The endplate AChR belongs to a large superfamily of neurotransmitter receptors, called Cys-loop receptors, and has served as an exemplar receptor for probing fundamental structures and mechanisms that underlie fast synaptic transmission in the central and peripheral nervous systems. Recent studies provide an increasingly detailed picture of the structure of the AChR and the symphony of molecular motions that underpin its remarkably fast and efficient chemoelectrical transduction.

Prokaryotic orthologs of eukaryotic Cys-loop receptor channels recently emerged as structural and mechanistic surrogates to investigate this superfamily of intercellular signaling proteins. Here, we examine proton activation of the prokaryotic ortholog GLIC using patch clamp electrophysiology, mutagenesis, and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. Whole-cell current recordings from human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293 cells expressing GLIC show half-maximal activation at pH 6, close to the pK(a) of histidine, implicating the three native His residues in proton sensing linked to activation. The mutation H235F abolishes proton activation, H277Y is without effect, and all nine mutations of His-127 prevent expression on the cell surface. In the GLIC crystal structure, His-235 on transmembrane (TM) α-helix 2, hydrogen bonds to the main chain carbonyl oxygen of Ile-259 on TM α-helix 3. MD simulations show that when His-235 is protonated, the hydrogen bond persists, and the channel remains in the open conformation, whereas when His-235 is deprotonated, the hydrogen bond dissociates, and the channel closes. Mutations of the proximal Tyr-263, which also links TM α-helices 2 and 3 via a hydrogen bond, alter proton sensitivity over a 1.5 pH unit range. MD simulations show that mutations of Tyr-263 alter the hydrogen bonding capacity of His-235. The overall findings show that His-235 in the TM region of GLIC is a novel proton binding site linked to channel activation.

Potentiation of neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors by exogenous ligands is a promising strategy for treatment of neurological disorders including Alzheimer's disease and schizophrenia. To gain insight into molecular mechanisms underlying potentiation, we examined ACh-induced single-channel currents through the human neuronal α7 acetylcholine receptor in the presence of the α7-specific potentiator PNU-120596 (PNU). Compared to the unusually brief single-channel opening episodes elicited by agonist alone, channel opening episodes in the presence of agonist and PNU are dramatically prolonged. Dwell time analysis reveals that PNU introduces two novel components into open time histograms, indicating at least two degrees of PNU-induced potentiation. Openings of the longest potentiated class coalesce into clusters whose frequency and duration change over a narrow range of PNU concentration. At PNU concentrations approaching saturation, these clusters last up to several minutes, prolonging the submillisecond α7 opening episodes by several orders of magnitude. Mutations known to reduce PNU potentiation at the whole-cell level still give rise to multisecond-long single-channel clusters. However mutation of five residues lining a cavity within each subunit's transmembrane domain abolishes PNU potentiation, defining minimal structural determinants of PNU potentiation.

The α(7) acetylcholine receptor (AChR) mediates pre- and postsynaptic neurotransmission in the central nervous system and is a potential therapeutic target in neurodegenerative, neuropsychiatric and inflammatory disorders. We determined the crystal structure of the extracellular domain of a receptor chimera constructed from the human α(7) AChR and Lymnaea stagnalis acetylcholine binding protein (AChBP), which shares 64% sequence identity and 71% similarity with native α(7). We also determined the structure with bound epibatidine, a potent AChR agonist. Comparison of the structures revealed molecular rearrangements and interactions that mediate agonist recognition and early steps in signal transduction in α(7) AChRs. The structures further revealed a ring of negative charge within the central vestibule, poised to contribute to cation selectivity. Structure-guided mutational studies disclosed distinctive contributions to agonist recognition and signal transduction in α(7) AChRs. The structures provide a realistic template for structure-aided drug design and for defining structure-function relationships of α(7) AChRs., (© 2011 Nature America, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Each subunit in a homopentameric Cys-loop receptor contains a specialized coupling region positioned between the agonist binding domain and the ion conductive channel. To determine the contribution of each coupling region to the stability of the open channel, we constructed a receptor subunit (α7-5-HT(3A)) with both a disabled coupling region and a reporter mutation that alters unitary conductance, and coexpressed normal and mutant subunits. The resulting receptors show single-channel current amplitudes that are quantized according to the number of reporter mutations per receptor, allowing correlation of the number of intact coupling regions with mean open time. We find that each coupling region contributes an equal increment to the stability of the open channel. However, by altering the numbers and locations of active coupling regions and binding sites, we find that a coupling region in a subunit flanked by inactive binding sites can still stabilize the open channel. We also determine minimal requirements for channel opening regardless of stability and find that channel opening can occur in a receptor with one active coupling region flanked by functional binding sites or with one active binding site flanked by functional coupling regions. The overall findings show that, whereas the agonist binding sites contribute interdependently and asymmetrically to open-channel stability, the coupling regions contribute independently and symmetrically.

Agonist binding to Cys-loop receptors promotes a large transmembrane ion flux of several million cations or anions per second. To investigate structural bases for the dynamics (MD) simulations, X-ray crystallography, and single channel recording. MD simulations of the muscle nicotinic receptor, imbedded in a lipid bilayer with an applied transmembrane potential, reveal single cation translocation events during transient periods of channel hydration. During the simulation trajectory, cations paused for prolonged periods near several rings of anionic residues projecting from the lumen of the extracellular domain of the receptor, but subsequently the cation moved rapidly through the hydrophobic transmembrane region as the constituent alpha-helices exhibited back and forth rocking motions. Cocrystallization of acetylcholine binding protein with sulfate ions revealed coordination of five sulfates with residues from one of these charged rings; in cation-selective Cys-loop receptors this ring contains negatively charged residues, whereas in anion-selective receptors it contains positively charged residues. In the muscle nicotinic receptor, charge reversal of residues of this ring decreases unitary conductance by up to 80%. Thus in Cys-loop receptors, a series of charged rings along the ion translocation pathway concentrates hydrated ions relative to bulk solution, giving rise to charge selectivity, and then subtle motions of the hydrophobic transmembrane, coupled with transient periods of water filling, enable rapid ion flux.

The congenital myasthenic syndromes have now been traced to an array of molecular targets at the neuromuscular junction encoded by no fewer than 11 disease genes. The disease genes were identified by the candidate gene approach, using clues derived from clinical, electrophysiological, cytochemical, and ultrastructural features. For example, electrophysiologic studies in patients suffering from sudden episodes of apnea pointed to a defect in acetylcholine resynthesis and CHAT as the candidate gene (Ohno et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:2017-2022, 2001); refractoriness to anticholinesterase medications and partial or complete absence of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) from the endplates (EPs) has pointed to one of the two genes (COLQ and ACHE ( T )) encoding AChE, though mutations were observed only in COLQ. After a series of patients carrying mutations in a disease gene have been identified, the emerging genotype-phenotype correlations provided clues for targeted mutation analysis in other patients. Mutations in EP-specific proteins also prompted expression studies that proved pathogenicity, highlighted important functional domains of the abnormal proteins, and pointed to rational therapy.

The ligand-gated ion channel from Erwinia chrysanthemi (ELIC) is a prokaryotic homolog of the eukaryotic nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) that responds to the binding of neurotransmitter acetylcholine and mediates fast signal transmission. ELIC is similar to the nAChR in its primary sequence and overall subunit organization, but despite their structural similarity, it is not clear whether these two ligand-gated ion channels operate in a similar manner. Further, it is not known to what extent mechanistic insights gleaned from the ELIC structure translate to eukaryotic counterparts such as the nAChR. Here we use molecular-dynamics simulations to probe the conformational dynamics and hydration of the transmembrane pore of ELIC. The results are compared with those from our previous simulation of the human alpha7 nAChR. Overall, ELIC displays increased stability compared to the nAChR, whereas the two proteins exhibit remarkable similarity in their global motion and flexibility patterns. The majority of the increased stability of ELIC does not stem from the deficiency of the models used in the simulations, and but rather seems to have a structural basis. Slightly altered dynamical correlation features are also observed among several loops within the membrane region. In sharp contrast to the nAChR, ELIC is completely dehydrated from the pore center to the extracellular end throughout the simulation. Finally, the simulation of an ELIC mutant substantiates the important role of F246 on the stability, hydration and possibly function of the ELIC channel.

In the course of synaptic transmission in the brain and periphery, acetylcholine receptors (AChRs) rapidly transduce a chemical signal into an electrical impulse. The speed of transduction is facilitated by rapid ACh association and dissociation, suggesting a binding site relatively non-selective for small cations. Selective transduction has been thought to originate from the ability of ACh, over that of other organic cations, to trigger the subsequent channel-opening step. However, transitions to and from the open state were shown to be similar for agonists with widely different efficacies. By studying mutant AChRs, we show here that the ultimate closed-to-open transition is agonist-independent and preceded by two primed closed states; the first primed state elicits brief openings, whereas the second elicits long-lived openings. Long-lived openings and the associated primed state are detected in the absence and presence of an agonist, and exhibit the same kinetic signatures under both conditions. By covalently locking the agonist-binding sites in the bound conformation, we find that each site initiates a priming step. Thus, a change in binding-site conformation primes the AChR for channel opening in a process that enables selective activation by ACh while maximizing the speed and efficiency of the biological response.

We investigated the initial coupling of agonist binding to channel gating of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor using targeted molecular-dynamics (TMD) simulation. After TMD simulation to accelerate closure of the C-loops at the agonist binding sites, the region of the pore that passes through the cell membrane expands. To determine whether the structural changes in the pore result in ion conduction, we used a coarse-grained ion conduction simulator, Biology Boltzmann transport Monte Carlo, and applied it to two structural frames taken before and after TMD simulation. The structural model before TMD simulation represents the channel in the proposed "resting" state, whereas the model after TMD simulation represents the channel in the proposed "active" state. Under external voltage biases, the channel in the "active" state was permeable to cations. Our simulated ion conductance approaches that obtained experimentally and recapitulates several functional properties characteristic of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor. Thus, closure of the C-loop triggers a structural change in the channel sufficient to account for the open channel current. This approach of applying Biology Boltzmann transport Monte Carlo simulation can be used to further investigate the binding to gating transduction mechanism and the structural bases for ion selection and translocation.

Homo-pentameric Cys-loop receptors contain five identical agonist binding sites, each formed at a subunit interface. To determine the number and locations of binding sites required to generate a stable active state, we constructed a receptor subunit with a mutation that disables the agonist binding site and a reporter mutation that alters unitary conductance and coexpressed mutant and nonmutant subunits. Although receptors with a range of different subunit compositions are produced, patch-clamp recordings reveal that the amplitude of each single-channel opening event reports the number and, for certain subunit combinations, the locations of subunits with intact binding sites. We find that receptors with three binding sites at nonconsecutive subunit interfaces exhibit maximal mean channel open time, receptors with binding sites at three consecutive or two nonconsecutive interfaces exhibit intermediate open time, and receptors with binding sites at two consecutive or one interface exhibit brief open time. Macroscopic recordings after rapid application of agonist reveal that channel activation slows and the extent of desensitization decreases as the number of binding sites per receptor decreases. The overall results provide a framework for defining mechanisms of activation and drug modulation for homo-pentameric Cys-loop receptors.

The nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (AChR) transduces binding of nerve-released ACh into opening of an intrinsic ion channel, yet the intraprotein interactions behind transduction remain to be fully elucidated. Attention has focused on the region of the AChR in which the beta1-beta2 and Cys-loops from the extracellular domain project into a cavity framed by residues preceding the first transmembrane domain (pre-M1) and the linker spanning transmembrane domains M2 and M3. Previous studies identified a principal transduction pathway in which the pre-M1 domain is coupled to the M2-M3 linker through the beta1-beta2 loop. Here we identify a parallel pathway in which the pre-M1 domain is coupled to the M2-M3 linker through the Cys-loop. Mutagenesis, single-channel kinetic analyses and thermodynamic mutant cycle analyses reveal energetic coupling among alphaLeu 210 from the pre-M1 domain, alphaPhe 135 and alphaPhe 137 from the Cys-loop, and alphaLeu 273 from the M2-M3 linker. Residues at equivalent positions of non-alpha-subunits show negligible coupling, indicating these interresidue couplings are specific to residues in the alpha-subunit. Thus, the extracellular beta1-beta2 and Cys-loops bridge the pre-M1 domain and M2-M3 linker to transduce agonist binding into channel gating.

Neurotransmitter binding to Cys-loop receptors promotes a prodigious transmembrane flux of several million ions/s, but to date, structural determinants of ion flux have been identified flanking the membrane-spanning region. Using x-ray crystallography, sequence analysis, and single-channel recording, we identified a novel determinant of ion conductance near the point of entry of permeant ions. Co-crystallization of acetylcholine-binding protein with sulfate anions revealed coordination of SO4(2-) with a ring of lysines at a position equivalent to 24 A above the lipid membrane in homologous Cys-loop receptors. Analysis of multiple sequence alignments revealed that residues equivalent to the ring of lysines are negatively charged in cation-selective receptors but are positively charged in anion-selective receptors. Charge reversal of side chains at homologous positions in the nicotinic receptor from the motor end plate decreases unitary conductance up to 80%. Selectivity filters stemming from transmembrane alpha-helices have similar pore diameters and compositions of amino acids. These findings establish that when the channel opens under a physiological electrochemical gradient, permeant ions are initially stabilized within the extracellular vestibule of Cys-loop receptors, and this stabilization is a major determinant of ion conductance.

We studied allosteric potentiation of rat alpha3beta2 neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) by the anthelmintic compound morantel. Macroscopic currents evoked by acetylcholine (ACh) from nAChRs expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes increase up to 8-fold in the presence of low concentrations of morantel (< or =10 microM); the magnitude of the potentiation depends on both agonist and modulator concentrations. It is noteworthy that the potentiated currents exceed the maximum currents achieved by saturating (millimolar) concentrations of agonist. Studies of macroscopic currents elicited by prolonged drug applications (100-300 s) indicate that morantel does not increase alpha3beta2 receptor activity by reducing slow (> or =1 s) desensitization. Instead, using outside-out patch-clamp recordings, we demonstrate that morantel increases the frequency of single-channel openings and alters the bursting characteristics of the openings in a manner consistent with enhanced channel gating; these results quantitatively explain the macroscopic current potentiation. Morantel is a very weak agonist alone, but we show that the classic competitive antagonist dihydro-beta-erythroidine inhibits morantel-evoked currents noncompetitively, indicating that morantel does not bind to the canonical ACh binding sites.

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (AChRs) mediate rapid excitatory synaptic transmission throughout the peripheral and central nervous systems. They transduce binding of nerve-released ACh into opening of an intrinsic channel, yet the structural basis underlying transduction is not fully understood. Previous studies revealed a principal transduction pathway in which alphaArg 209 of the pre-M1 domain and alphaGlu 45 of the beta1-beta2 loop functionally link the two regions, positioning alphaVal 46 of the beta1-beta2 loop in a cavity formed by alphaPro 272 through alphaSer 269 of the M2-M3 loop. Here we investigate contributions of residues within and proximal to this pathway using single-channel kinetic analysis, site-directed mutagenesis, and thermodynamic mutant cycle analysis. We find that in contributing to channel gating, alphaVal 46 and alphaVal 132 of the signature Cys loop couple energetically to alphaPro 272. Furthermore, these residues are optimized in both their size and hydrophobicity to mediate rapid and efficient channel gating, suggesting naturally occurring substitutions at these positions enable a diverse range of gating rate constants among the Cys-loop receptor superfamily. The overall results indicate that alphaPro 272 functionally couples to flanking Val residues extending from the beta1-beta2 and Cys loops within the ACh binding to channel opening transduction pathway.

The lifetimes of activated postsynaptic receptor channels contribute to the efficiency of synaptic transmission. Here we show that structural differences within the interface dividing extracellular and transmembrane domains of homomeric alpha7 and 5-HT(3A) receptors account for the large differences in open-channel lifetime and time of desensitization onset between these contrasting members of the Cys-loop receptor superfamily. For alpha7 receptors, agonist-evoked single-channel currents appear mainly as isolated brief openings (tau(o) = 0.35 ms), whereas macroscopic currents after a step pulse of agonist desensitize rapidly (tau(d) = 0.4 ms). In contrast for 5-HT(3A) receptors, agonist-evoked single-channel currents appear as clusters of many long openings in quick succession (tau(cluster) = 1.2 s), whereas macroscopic currents desensitize slowly (tau(d) = 1.1 s). A chimeric alpha7-5HT(3A) receptor exhibits functional properties intermediate between those of the parent receptors, but the functional signatures of each parent are reconstituted after substituting the major loops within the interface of the extracellular and transmembrane domains from the corresponding parent receptor. Furthermore, these structural loops contribute to open-channel lifetime and time of desensitization onset in a nonadditive manner. The results suggest that desensitization is the major determinant of the lifetimes of activated alpha7 and 5-HT(3A) receptors and that functional differences between the two receptors arise primarily through structural differences at the interface between extracellular and transmembrane domains.