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The arrival of Modern Humans (MHs) in Europe between 50 ka and 36 ka coincides with significant changes in human behaviour, regarding the production of tools, the exploitation of resources and the systematic use of ornaments and colouring substances. The emergence of the so-called modern behaviours is usually associated with MHs, although in these last decades findings relating to symbolic thinking of pre-Sapiens groups have been claimed. In this paper we present a synthesis of the Italian evidence concerning bone manufacturing and the use of ornaments and pigments in the time span encompassing the demise of Neandertals and their replacement by MHs. Current data show that Mousterian bone tools are mostly obtained from bone fragments used as is. Conversely an organized production of fine shaped bone tools is characteristic of the Uluzzian and the Protoaurignacian, when the complexity inherent in the manufacturing processes suggests that bone artefacts are not to be considered as expedient resources. Some traces of symbolic activities are associated to Neandertals in Northern Italy. Ornaments (mostly tusk shells) and pigments used for decorative purposes are well recorded during the Uluzzian. Their features and distribution witness to an intriguing cultural homogeneity within this technocomplex. The Protoaurignacian is characterized by a wider archaeological evidence, consisting of personal ornaments (mostly pierced gastropods), pigments and artistic items.

The Uluzzian techno-complex is one of the first evidence for Homo sapiens successful dispersal in Europe. It develops from about 45 to 40 ka cal. BP, i.e., during the so-called “transition” from Middle to Upper Palaeolithic, the period in which Neandertals went extinct. The cave site of Castelcivita (southern Italy) contains a well-preserved stratigraphic sequence concentrated in this specific phase as it comprises Late-Final Mousterian, Uluzzian and Protoaurignacian layers. Here we present the technological study of the Uluzzian lithic assemblage found in layer rpi of this site. The study specifically focuses on the methods used to exploit cores, characterised by a low degree of technical investment in which management of the convexities and angles of debitage are almost absent. The most used percussion technique is bipolar striking on anvil. Despite they are not standardized, the obtained products show features which make them apt to be used in composite devices. The use of local raw materials, the production of small items and the marginal role of retouched pieces, among which some lunates are present, are also typical of the rpi assemblage. Based on these results we argue that the strengths of the Castelcivita rpi technological approach are its versatility, and the reduction of unnecessary costs related to raw material procurement, the configuration of the core and the management of the convexities. All these elements tend to the use of the available resources in the most productive way, without the final product losing efficiency, according to the concept “less is more”. A hypothesis possibly explaining this technical behaviour is provided in the conclusions.

Objectives The study of the development of human bipedalism can provide a unique perspective on the evolution of morphology and behavior across species. To generate new knowledge of these mechanisms, we analyze changes in both internal and external morphology of the growing human talus in a sample of modern human juveniles using an innovative approach. Materials and Methods The sample consists of high-resolution microCT scans of 70 modern juvenile tali, aged between 8 postnatal weeks and 10 years old, from a broad chronological range from Middle/Late Neolithic, that is, between 4800 and 4500 BCE, to the 20th century. We applied geometric morphometric and whole-bone trabecular analysis (bone volume fraction, degree of anisotropy, trabecular number, thickness, and spacing) to all specimens to identify changes in the external and internal morphology during growth. Morphometric maps were also generated. Results During the first year of life, the talus has an immature and globular shape, with a dense, compact, and rather isotropic trabecular architecture, with numerous trabeculae packed closely together. This pattern changes while children acquire a more mature gait, and the talus tends to have a lower bone volume fraction, a higher anisotropy, and a more mature shape. Discussion The changes in talar internal and external morphologies reflect the different loading patterns experienced during growth, gradually shifting from an “unspecialized” morphology to a more complex one, following the development of bipedal gait. Our research shows that talar plasticity, even though genetically driven, may show mechanical influences and contribute to tracking the main locomotor milestones.

Objective: The development of bipedalism is a very complex activity that contributes to shaping the anatomy of the foot. The talus, which starts ossifying in utero, may account for the developing stages from the late gestational phase onwards. Here, we explore the early development of the talus in both its internal and external morphology to broaden the knowledge of the anatomical changes that occur during early development.Materials and Methods: The sample consists of high-resolution microCT scans of 28 modern juvenile tali (from 36 prenatal weeks to 2 years), from a broad chronological range from the Late Roman period to the 20th century. We applied geometric morphometric and whole-bone trabecular analysis to investigate the early talar morphological changes.Results: In the youngest group (

[Objectives] During the middle-to-upper Paleolithic transition (50,000 and 40,000¿years ago), interaction between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens varied across Europe. In southern Italy, the association between Homo sapiens fossils and non-Mousterian material culture, as well as the mode and tempo of Neanderthal demise, are still vividly debated. In this research, we focus on the study of two human teeth by using 3D geometric morphometric approaches for a reliable taxonomical attribution as well as obtaining new radiometric dates on the archeological sequence., [Material and Methods] This work presents two lower deciduous molars uncovered at Roccia San Sebastiano (Mondragone-Caserta, Italy), stratigraphically associated with Mousterian (RSS1) and Uluzzian (RSS2) artifacts. To obtain a probabilistic attribution of the two RSS teeth to each reference taxa group composed of Neanderthals and Homo sapiens, we performed and compared the performance of three supervised learning algorithms (flexible discriminant analysis, multiadaptive regression splines, and random forest) on both crown and cervical outlines obtained by virtual morphometric methods. [Discussion] This site yields the most recent direct evidence for a Neanderthal presence in southern Italy and confirms a later shift to upper Paleolithic technology in southwestern Italy compared to the earliest Uluzzian evidence at Grotta del Cavallo (Puglia, Italy)., The authors are very grateful to the Municipality of Mondragone for supporting and funding the excavations. We also thank the Museo Civico Archeologico Biagio Greco, Mondragone, Caserta, Italy which provided funding, logistic support and welcomed the researcher since 1999 as well as an acknowledgement to the Soprintendenza Archeologia Belle Arti e Paesaggio di Salerno e Avellino, Benevento e Caserta. V.S. acknowledges funding from the Alon Fellowship. This study received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (grant agreement No 724046 – SUCCESS, http://www.erc-success.eu); the radiocarbon dating was supported by the ERC-RESOLUTION grant agreement No 803147, https://site.unibo.it/resolution-erc/en);); the DNA analysis was funded by the European Research Council (grant agreement number 694707 to Svante Pääbo) and the Max Planck Society. We thank E. Essel, S. Nagel, B. Nickel, J. Richter, B. Schellbach and A. Weihmann for work in the ancient DNA lab; and M. Meyer and S. Pääbo for their input. Open Access Funding provided by Universita degli Studi di Bologna within the CRUI-CARE Agreement.

Personal ornaments are commonly linked to the emergence of symbolic behavior. Although their presence in Africa dates back to the Middle Stone Age, evidence of ornament manufacturing in Eurasia are sporadically observed in Middle Palaeolithic contexts, and until now, large-scale diffusion has been well documented only since the Upper Palaeolithic. Nevertheless, little is known during the period between ca. 50,000 and 40,000 years ago (ka), when modern humans colonized Eurasia replacing existing hominin populations such as the Neandertals, and a variety of “transitional” and/or early Upper Palaeolithic cultures emerged. Here, we present shell ornaments from the Uluzzian site of Grotta del Cavallo in Italy, southern Europe. Our results show evidence of a local production of shell beads for ornamental purposes as well as a trend toward higher homogeneity in tusk bead shape and size over time. The temporal interval of the layers of interest (45–40 ka) makes Cavallo the earliest known shell ornament making context in Europe.

Before the end of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM, ∼16.5 ka ago) set in motion major shifts in human culture and population structure, a consistent change in lithic technology, material culture, settlement pattern, and adaptive strategies is recorded in Southern Europe at ∼18–17 ka ago. In this time frame, the landscape of Northeastern Italy changed considerably, and the retreat of glaciers allowed hunter-gatherers to gradually recolonize the Alps. Change within this renewed cultural frame (i.e., during the Late Epigravettian phase) is currently associated with migrations favored by warmer climate linked to the Bølling-Allerød onset (14.7 ka ago), which replaced earlier genetic lineages with ancestry found in an individual who lived ∼14 ka ago at Riparo Villabruna, Italy, and shared among different contexts (Villabruna Cluster). Nevertheless, these dynamics and their chronology are still far from being disentangled due to fragmentary evidence for long-distance interactions across Europe. Here, we generate new genomic data from a human mandible uncovered at Riparo Tagliente (Veneto, Italy), which we directly dated to 16,980–16,510 cal BP (2σ). This individual, affected by focal osseous dysplasia, is genetically affine to the Villabruna Cluster. Our results therefore backdate by at least 3 ka the diffusion in Southern Europe of a genetic component linked to Balkan/Anatolian refugia, previously believed to have spread during the later Bølling/Allerød event. In light of the new genetic evidence, this population replacement chronologically coincides with the very emergence of major cultural transitions in Southern and Western Europe., The research was supported by the European Union through the European Research Council under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme (grant agreement no. 724046 – Success awarded to S.B., http://www.erc-success.eu; grant agreement no. 803147 Resolution awarded to S.T., https://site.unibo.it/resolution-erc/en) as well as through the European Regional Development Fund (project no. 2014–2020.4.01.16–0030 to C.L.S. and T.S.) and projects no. 2014-2020.4.01.16-0024 and MOBTT53 (L.P.), by the Estonian Research Council personal research grant (PRG243; C.L.S.), and by UniPd PRID 2019 (L.P.).

The analysis of bone-surface modifications (BSM), such as butchering marks, is necessary to better understand how the exploitation of animal resources by past hominins influenced their biological and cultural evolution. In this paper, we try to quantify to what extent the depth of the cut marks influences the shape of their cross sections. This is of crucial importance for a valid interpretation of the shape data collected on archaeological BSMs. Two groups of slicing cut-mark cross sections were experimentally produced with two flint burins on a defleshed cattle innominate, and a set of butchering marks were produced with an unretouched flint flake. These were analysed by means of 3D microscopy and geometric morphometrics. The resulting sets of striae show different depths and different cross-sectional shapes. Shallower cross sections display less steep walls and, consequently, a wider opening angle. When the characteristics of the burin cutting edges were investigated, it was clear that the difference in shape between the two groups of striations was probably a function of the way in which the tool penetrated the bone. These results are taphonomically relevant since similar differences in cross-sectional shapes have been found in marks produced with different tools.

Objectives Palate morphology is constantly changing throughout an individual's lifespan, yet its asymmetry during growth is still little understood. In this research, we focus on the study of palate morphology by using 3D geometric morphometric approaches to observe changes at different stages of life, and to quantify the impact of directional and fluctuating asymmetry on different areas at different growth stages. Materials and Methods The sample consists of 183 individuals (1–72 years) from two identified human skeletal collections of 19th and early 20th Century Italian contexts. A 3D‐template of 41 (semi)landmarks was applied on digital palate models to observe morphological variation during growth. Results Asymmetrical components of the morphological structure appears multidirectional on the entire palate surface in individuals, Directional and fluctuating asymmetry of human palate.

Microscopic analysis of backed lithic pieces from the Uluzzian technocomplex (45–40 thousand yr ago) at Grotta del Cavallo (southern Italy) reveals their use as mechanically delivered projectile weapons, attributed to anatomically modern humans. Use-wear and residue analyses indicate that the lithics were hunting armatures hafted with complex adhesives, while experimental and ethnographic comparisons support their use as projectiles. The use of projectiles conferred a hunting strategy with a higher impact energy and a potential subsistence advantage over other populations and species. Microscopic analysis of backed stone pieces from the Uluzzian technocomplex of Italy (45–40 thousand years ago) identifies them as hafted armatures, probably used as projectiles.

Recent work has disclosed the critical role played by enamel peptides in sex classification of old skeletal remains. In particular, protein AMELY (amelogenin isoform Y) is present in the enamel dental tissue of male individuals only, while AMELX (isoform X) can be found in both sexes. AMELY can be easily detected by LC-MS/MS in the ion extracted chromatograms of the SM(ox)IRPPY peptide (monoisotopic [M + 2 H]+2 mass = 440.2233 m/z). In this paper, we exploited the dimorphic features of the amelogenin protein to determine the sex of the so-called ‘Lovers of Modena’, two Late Antique individuals whose skeletons were intentionally buried hand-in-hand. Upon discovery, mass media had immediately assumed they were a male-female couple, even if bad preservation of the bones did not allow an effective sex classification. We were able to extract proteins from the dental enamel of both individuals (~1600 years old) and to confidently classify them as males. Results were compared to 14 modern and archaeological control samples, confirming the reliability of the ion chromatogram method for sex determination. Although we currently have no information on the actual relationship between the ‘Lovers of Modena’ (affective? Kin-based?), the discovery of two adult males intentionally buried hand-in-hand may have profound implications for our understanding of funerary practices in Late Antique Italy.

The analysis of bone surface modifications (BSM), such as butchering marks, is necessary to better understand how the exploitation of animal resources by past hominins influenced their biological and cultural evolution. Even if several studies have been carried out on this topic in the last decades, there are still some phenomena which need to be thoroughly understood. Here we try to quantify how can the depth of cut marks influence the shape of their cross-sections. This is of crucial important for a valid interpretation of shape data collected on archaeological BSMs. In particular, two groups of cut marks’ cross-sections experimentally produced with two flint burins on a cattle innominate are analysed in this paper by means of 3D microscopy and geometric morphometrics. The two sets of striae show a different depth and a different cross-sectional shape. In particular, shallower cross sections are characterized by less steep walls and consequently by a wider opening angle. If analysis moves to the characteristics of the cutting edge of the burins, it comes out that the different shape between the two groups of striations is probably a function of the way in which the tool penetrates into the bone. These results are relevant for taphonomy, since similar difference in cross-sectional shape were found between marks produced with different raw materials. This contribution highlights the importance of considering the characteristics of tool’s cutting edges in evaluating the meaning of shape variability of cut marks cross-sections. © 2019 International Conference on Metrology for Archaeology and Cultural Heritage.

Roccia San Sebastiano is a tectonic-karstic cave located at the foot of the southern slope of Mt. Massico, in the territory of Mondragone (Caserta) in Campania (southern Italy). Systematic excavation has been carried out since 2001, leading to the partial exploration of an important Pleistocene deposit, extraordinarily rich in lithic and faunal remains. The aim of this paper is to (1) present the stratigraphic sequence of Roccia San Sebastiano, and (2) technologically describe the lithic materials of squares F14 t18, t19, t20; E16 t16, t17, t18 recently recognised as Uluzzian. The stratigraphic sequence is more than 3 m thick and dates from the Middle to the Upper Palaeolithic. It contains different techno-complexes: Gravettian, Aurignacian, Uluzzian and Mousterian. In the Uluzzian lithic assemblage mostly local pebbles of chert were used in order to produce small-sized objects. The concept of debitage mainly deals with unidirectional debitage with absent or fairly accurate management of the convexities and angles; the striking platforms are usually natural or made by one stroke. It is attested the use of both direct freehand percussion and bipolar technique on anvil in the same reduction sequence. Amongst the retouched tools the presence of two lunates is of note. This study of the Roccia San Sebastiano Uluzzian lithic complexes is significant for understanding the dynamics of the transition from Middle to Upper Palaeolithic in the Tyrrhenian margin of southern Italy.

Strontium isotopes are applied to a wide range of scientific fields and to different types of sample materials, providing valuable information foremost about provenance and age, but also on diagenetic processes and mixing relationships between different Sr reservoirs. The development of in-situ analytical techniques, such as laser ablation ICP-MS, has improved our understanding of Sr isotope variability in several field of application, because of the possibility to discriminate small-scale changes and their spatial distribution. However, large outputs of Sr isotope data are produced by laser ablation MC-ICP-MS systems, which necessitate of multiple offline steps to correct and assess the data. This requires the availability of simple and user-friendly tools, easily manageable also by non-specialists. With this in mind, we developed SrDR, an Excel-based interactive data reduction spreadsheet (‘SrDR’, Sr-Data-Reduction) for the processing of Sr isotopes measured by LA-MC-ICP-MS. The SrDR spreadsheet is easily customizable (a) to meet user-specific analytical protocols, (b) for different instruments (i.e. Nu Plasma vs. Neptune), and (c) for diverse target materials (e.g. Rare Earth Elements enriched or depleted samples). We include also several examples relevant to low and high temperature geochemistry fields - a fossil tooth, a modern seashell, a speleothem sample and plagioclase crystals - to show how different sample materials are corrected for different interfering masses.

The early onset of weaning in modern humans has been linked to the high nutritional demand of brain development that is intimately connected with infant physiology and growth rate. In Neanderthals, ontogenetic patterns in early life are still debated, with some studies suggesting an accelerated development and others indicating only subtle differences vs. modern humans. Here we report the onset of weaning and rates of enamel growth using an unprecedented sample set of three late (���70 to 50 ka) Neanderthals and one Upper Paleolithic modern human from northeastern Italy via spatially resolved chemical/isotopic analyses and histomorphometry of deciduous teeth. Our results reveal that the modern human nursing strategy, with onset of weaning at 5 to 6 mo, was present among these Neanderthals. This evidence, combined with dental development akin to modern humans, highlights their similar metabolic constraints during early life and excludes late weaning as a factor contributing to Neanderthals��� demise

Grotta dei Santi represents a very suitable investigation field for carrying out an inquiry into the Neandertal behaviour at a high-resolution time scale, in order to obtain data useful for the “functional” reading of the economic and settling strategies. This cave opens into the Monte Argentario Promontory (southern coast of Tuscany, central Italy), almost at sea-level, at the base of a limestone falaise about 50 m high. During MIS 3, when Neandertals occupied the site, there was a wide plain in front of the cave. Excavations carried out by the University of Siena over the last 13 years brought to light several Mousterian occupation phases represented, most of the times, by thin living floors separated from one another by sterile sediments. However, another “occupant”, the spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta), left clear traces in the cave in layers other than those occupied by humans. Although there usually is a clear-cut stratigraphic separation, a partial overlapping between the human and hyena occupations is sometimes documented, owing to their closeness in time. This is the case for the uppermost “living floor” of layer 150, which is the object of our study. A multidisciplinary integrated analytic methodology was applied, including lithic technology, taxonomic analysis of faunal remains, taphonomy, use-wear analysis and spatial analysis by means of a GIS platform. This approach allowed us to detect a set of parameters useful for identifying activities due to each of these two predators individually, which provided substantial information about their behaviours.

The Middle Bronze Age site of Gorgo del Ciliegio is located in the Afra valley (Upper Tiber basin) in the proximity of strategic trans-Apennine passes connecting the Tyrrhenian regions of Central Italy to the Po plain and the Umbrian-Marches territories. At Gorgo del Ciliegio a Middle Bronze Age small settlement composed of a single house and various kinds of ancillary features was discovered. Through a multi-disciplinary approach it was possible to gather a large amount of information about settlement dynamics implemented by people living at Gorgo del Ciliegio and about the ways in which this community interacted with and took advantage of the surrounding environment/landscape, while adapting the site's economy to natural features. This paper focuses on the evidence provided by material culture, environment and landscape considered as interrelating indicators of social identity and economic strategies. In order to contextualize these issues, broad space was given to the spatial organization and the architectural features as key factors of socio-economic complexity. The authors conclude that Gorgo del Ciliegio was a farm settlement being probably part of a more extensive settlement system, composed of several farms dispersed along the Afra valley. This specific context proved to be particularly suitable for interweaving relations and exchanges with the Adriatic regions, and thus promoting (and being promoted by) the development of an economy mainly based on mobile pastoralism.

The Tyrolean Iceman, a 5,300-year-old glacier mummy recovered at the Tisenjoch (South Tyrol, Italy) together with his clothes and personal equipment, represents a unique opportunity for prehistoric research. The present work examines the Iceman's tools which are made from chert or are related to chert working - dagger, two arrowheads, endscraper, borer, small flake and antler retoucher - and considers also the arrowhead still embedded in the shoulder of the mummy. The interdisciplinary results achieved by study of the lithic raw material, technology, use-wear analysis, CT analysis and typology all add new information to OÈtzi`sindividual history and his last days, and allow insights into the way of life of Alpine Copper Age communities. The chert raw material of the small assemblage originates from at least three different areas of provenance in the Southalpine region. One, or possibly two, sources derive from outcrops in the Trentino, specifically the Non Valley. Such variability suggests an extensive provisioning network, not at all limited to the Lessini mountains, which was able to reach the local communities. The Iceman's toolkit displays typological characteristics of the Northern Italian tradition, but also comprises features typical of the Swiss Horgen culture, which will come as no surprise in the toolkit of a man who lived in a territory where transalpine contacts would have been of great importance. OÈtzi was not a flintknapper, but he was able to resharpen his tools with a medium to good level of skill. Wear traces reveal that he was a right-hander. Most instruments in the toolkit had reached their final stage of usability, displaying extensive usage, mostly from plant working, resharpenings and breaks. Evidently OÈtzi had not had any access to chert for quite some time, which must have been problematic during his last hectic days, preventing him from repairing and integrating his weapons, in particular his arrows. Freshly modified blade tools without any wear suggest planned work which he never carried out, possibly prevented by the events which made him return to the mountains where he was killed by a Southern Alpine archer.

Most of the Middle Palaeolithic evidence of Central Italy still lacks a reliable chrono-cultural framework mainly due to research history. In this context Grotta dei Santi, a wide cave located on Monte Argentario, on the southern coast of Tuscany, is particularly relevant as it contains a very well preserved sequence including several Mousterian layers. Research carried out at this site in the last years (2007–2017) allowed for a preliminary estimation of its chronology based on a set of radiometric determinations which place the investigated sequence in the time interval between 50 and 40 ka BP. Alongside the chronological issue, this paper mainly focuses on the geoarchaeological and zooarchaeological (micro and macro fauna) studies carried out on the materials retrieved during the 2007–2014 excavation fieldworks. The results of these studies are consistent with those from the radiometric chronology. A state of art concerning the MIS3 Italian sites is also provided in order to highlight the key role Grotta dei Santi may play in the assessment of late Neandertals’ behaviour within the framework of the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition of Central Italy.

The surface texture of a stone represents a sensitive parameter in evaluating its conservation state. In monuments and sculptures, in fact, external agents continuously alter the appearance of stones, determining peculiar weathering patterns and modifying properties such as retention of water and particles, interaction with light, color, and finishing. The application of protective coatings also determines changes in surface appearance of a stone, usually evaluated and monitored by color change tests. Surface metrology methods offer the possibility to quantify these changes, evaluating the impact of external agents (natural, i.e. weathering, and artificially, i.e. protective coatings) on natural stones. In this research, we demonstrate the potential of surface areal measurements in describing the evolution of weathering processes and the effects of protective treatments on porous stone materials. The obtained results suggest that the extent of the modifications is related to the scale of observation (small- vs. large-scale undulations, i.e. roughness and waviness, respectively), with an overall increase of surface roughness as the weathering proceeds. Unexpectedly, coatings based on nanoparticle dispersions increase the topographic height parameters, due to the absence of a homogeneous film.

Defining the processes involved in the technical/cultural shifts from the Late Middle to the Early Upper Palaeolithic in Europe (~50-39 thousand years BP) is one of the most important tasks facing prehistoric studies. Apart from the technological diversity generally recognised as belonging to the latter part of the Middle Palaeolithic, some assemblages showing original technological traditions (i.e. Initial Upper Palaeolithic: Bohunician, Bachokirian; so called transitional industries: Châtelperronian, Szeletian, Lincombian-Ranisian-Jerzmanowician, Uluzzian; Early Upper Palaeolithic: Protoaurignacian, Early Aurignacian) first appear during this interval. Explaining such technological changes is a crucial step in order to understand if they were the result of the arrival of new populations, the result of parallel evolution, or of long-term processes of cultural and biological exchanges. In this debate Italy plays a pivotal role, due to its geographical position between eastern and western Mediterranean Europe as well as to it being the location of several sites showing Late Mousterian, Uluzzian and Protoaurignacian evidence distributed across the Peninsula. Our study aims to provide a synthesis of the available lithic evidence from this key area through a review of the evidence collected from a number of reference sites. The main technical features of the Late Mousterian, the Uluzzian and the Protoaurignacian traditions are examined from a diachronic and spatial perspective. Our overview allows the identification of major differences in the technological behaviour of these populations, making it possible to propose a number of specific working hypotheses on the basis of which further studies can be carried out. This study presents a detailed comparative study of the whole corpus of the lithic production strategies documented during this interval, and crucial element thus emerge: 1. In the Late Mousterian tools were manufactured with great attention being paid to the production phases and with great investment in inizializing and managing core convexities; 2. In contrast, Uluzzian lithic production proceeded with less careful management of the first phases of debitage, mainly obtaining tool morphologies by retouching. 3. In the Protoaurignacian the production is carefully organized and aimed at obtaining laminar blanks (mainly bladelets) usually marginally retouched. These data are of primary importance in order to assess the nature of the "transition" phenomenon in Italy, thus contributing to the larger debate about the disappearance of Neandertals and the arrival of early Modern Humans in Europe.

Early evidence for the treatment of dental pathology is found primarily among food-producing societies associated with high levels of oral pathology. However, some Late Pleistocene hunter-gatherers show extensive oral pathology, suggesting that experimentation with therapeutic dental interventions may have greater antiquity. Here, we report the second earliest probable evidence for dentistry in a Late Upper Paleolithic hunter-gatherer recovered from Riparo Fredian (Tuscany, Italy). Objectives: Early evidence for the treatment of dental pathology is found primarily among food producing societies associated with high levels of oral pathology. However, some Late Pleistocene hunter-gatherers show extensive oral pathology, suggesting that experimentation with therapeutic dental interventions may have greater antiquity. Here, we report the second earliest probable evidence for dentistry in a Late Upper Paleolithic hunter-gatherer recovered from Riparo Fredian (Tuscany, Italy). Materials and Methods: The Fredian 5 human consists of an associated maxillary anterior dentition with antemortem exposure of both upper first incisor (I1) pulp chambers. The pulp chambers present probable antemortem modifications that warrant in-depth analyses and direct dating. Scanning electron microscopy, microCT and residue analyses were used to investigate the purported modifications of external and internal surfaces of each. Results: The direct date places Fredian 5 between 13,000 and 12,740 calendar years ago. Both pulp chambers were circumferentially enlarged prior to the death of this individual. Occlusal dentine flaking on the margin of the cavities and striations on their internal aspects suggest anthropic manipulation. Residue analyses revealed a conglomerate of bitumen, vegetal fibers, and probable hairs adherent to the internal walls of the cavities. Discussion: The results are consistent with tool-assisted manipulation to remove necrotic or infected pulp in vivo and the subsequent use of a composite, organic filling. Fredian 5 confirms the practice of dentistry—specifically, a pathology-induced intervention—among Late Pleistocene hunter-gatherers. As such, it appears that fundamental perceptions of biomedical knowledge and practice were in place long before the socioeconomic changes associated with the transition to food production in the Neolithic.

The site of Riparo Broion (Vicenza, northeastern Italy) preserves a stratigraphic sequence documenting the Middle-to-Upper Paleolithic transition, in particular the final Mousterian and the Uluzzian cultures. In 2018, a human tooth was retrieved from a late Mousterian level, representing the first human remain ever found from this rock shelter (Riparo Broion 1). Here, we provide the morphological description and taxonomic assessment of Riparo Broion 1 with the support of classic and virtual morphology, 2D and 3D analysis of the topography of enamel thickness, and DNA analysis. The tooth is an exfoliated right upper deciduous canine, and its general morphology and enamel thickness distribution support attribution to a Neanderthal child. Correspondingly, the mitochondrial DNA sequence from Riparo Broion 1 falls within the known genetic variation of Late Pleistocene Neanderthals, in accordance with newly obtained radiocarbon dates that point to approximately 48 ka cal BP as the most likely minimum age for this specimen. The present work describes novel and direct evidence of the late Neanderthal occupation in northern Italy that preceded the marked cultural and technological shift documented by the Uluzzian layers in the archaeological sequence at Riparo Broion. Here, we provide a new full morphological, morphometric, and taxonomic analysis of Riparo Broion 1, in addition to generating the wider reference sample of Neanderthal and modern human upper deciduous canines. This research contributes to increasing the sample of fossil remains from Italy, as well as the number of currently available upper deciduous canines, which are presently poorly documented in the scientific literature.

The Uluzzian techno-complex is commonly considered to be a “transitional industry” mostly on the basis of some inferred characteristics such as a chiefly flake-based production, a small amount of Upper Palaeolithic-like tools and a combination of Middle and Upper Palaeolithic elements both in the toolkit and in the technical systems. Following its discovery, the Uluzzian was identified as the Italian counterpart of the French Châtelperronian and attributed to Neandertals. However, a study issued in 2011 has established the modern character of the two deciduous teeth found in 1964 in the Uluzzian deposit of Grotta del Cavallo, fostering renewed interests to the Uluzzian culture, which real nature is almost unknown to the international scientific community. Here we provide preliminary results of the study on the lithic assemblage from the earliest Uluzzian layer and on backed pieces from the whole Uluzzian sequence of Grotta del Cavallo (Apulia, Italy), the type site of the Uluzzian. Moreover, besides a thorough review on the stratigraphy of Grotta del Cavallo (Supplementary Materials), we provide updated information on the human remains by presenting two unpublished teeth from the reworked deposit of the same cave. We conclude that the early Uluzzians demonstrate original technological behavior and innovations devoid of any features deriving or directly linked with the late Mousterian of Southern Italy. Therefore, the novelty nature of the Uluzzian techno-complex (with respect to the preceding Mousterian) complies with the recent reassessment of the two deciduous teeth from Grotta del Cavallo in suggesting an earliest migration of modern humans in southern Europe around 45,000 years ago.

The Oscurusciuto rock shelter (Ginosa, Puglia, southern Italy) is a Middle Palaeolithic site characterized by a significant stratigraphy made up by several anthropic levels. The stratigraphic unit 13, consisting of a sandy compact deposit mixed with pyroclastic sediment, is a short palimpsest situated on a layer of tephra, identified as Mt. Epomeo green tuff (dated Ar/Ar ~ 55 ka BP). From a technological point of view, the aims of the production were backed flakes, convergent flakes, and other flakes obtained by means of a Levallois debitage, plus (less represented) bladelets produced by an additional volumetric reduction system. Our aim in this research was to examine a selection of the above-mentioned target objects produced by debitage in order to understand the manufacture and life-cycle of each single tool from a dynamic perspective. We integrated techno-functional and use-wear analyses: the first was implemented to globally comprehend each tool, identifying each single techno-functional unity (prehensile and transformative portions), whereas the second revealed the way in which these tools had been used, proceeding to identify the activity involved (e.g., piercing, cutting and/or scraping), and the type of material (vegetable/animal, soft/hard) on which these activities had been carried out. The combined use of these two approaches allows us to ascertain the intention of the prehistoric craftsmen, the gestures and procedures involved in making the tools, and the way they had been used. From one single object we are thus able to reconstruct a series of complex behaviours, encompassing the creation, the life-cycle and finally the ‘death’ or repurposing of the tool in question.

This paper deals with two teeth (an upper right M1 and an upper right dM2) from the Epigravettian found in the site of Paglicci (Southern Italy) showing interproximal grooves that are situated below the crown, on the root walls just apical to the cementum–enamel junction. These grooves have been examined on a digital microscope which displays 3D images of the analysed surfaces. The images obtained made it possible to interpret these interproximal grooves as tooth picking activities that can be interpreted as an attempt to alleviate sore gums. The comparison with experimental images from available literature made it possible to form hypotheses concerning the nature of the probes that might have been used by the humans. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

This paper focuses on the techno-functional study of a tool with a smooth end, typologically classifiable as spatula, made from a red deer metatarsal recovered at the early Mesolithic rock-shelter Galgenbuhel/Dos de la Forca. The site is located in the middle Adige Valley at Salurn/Salorno (South Tyrol – Northern Italy) and was dwelled by Sauveterrian hunter-gatherer-fisher-communities from the mid-9th to the mid-8th millennium cal. BC. Subsistence was based on the exploitation of wetland and valley bottom resources including an intense and at times specialized fishing activity. The identification of a probable harpoon fragment among the few but well preserved bone and antler artefacts detected at the site could in fact be part of fishing equipment. The main goal of this study was to recognize the specific use of the tool with a smooth end by means of use-wear analysis. It is quite difficult, indeed, to establish a specific function for this kind of tools as their morphological characters make them suitable for various tasks. A dedicated experimental program was developed to this scope, which involved manufacture and use of spatula replicas for different activities: fish scaling, beading fish heads, working tanned skin, net making, sewing reeds and working birch bark. The implementation of the experimental activity was also aimed at testing tool functionality in the course of the various tasks. The comparison between archaeological and experimental use-wear seems to indicate that the bone tool from Galgenbuhel was used as a needle for working vegetal material. On the other hand our experiments revealed a high functionality of this kind of tool also in beading fish heads, working tanned hide and bending birch bark.

This study uses a combination of digital microscopic analysis and experimental archaeology to assess stone tool cut marks on animal bones. We used two un-retouched flint flakes and two burins to inflict cut marks on fresh, boiled, and dry ungulate bones. The experiment produced three series of three engravings on each bone with each of the experimental tools. The first series involved one single stroke; the second, two strokes in the same direction; and the third, multiple strokes using a to-and-fro movement. We analyzed the striations using a Hirox 3D digital microscope (KH-7700) and collected metric and profile data on the morphology of the cut marks. In order to describe the shape of each cross section, we calculated the ratio between the breadth at the top and the breadth at the floor of cut marks. Preliminary results show that both the tool type and the method of creating the cut mark influence the shape of the resulting groove. In our experiment, morphological parameters can be used to differentiate between marks produced using un-retouched flint flakes and those produced using burins. However, neither morphological nor morphometric analysis allows us to identify the mechanical motion used to produce the cuts, nor the state of the bone (fresh, boiled, or dry) at the moment of marking.

In 1971, a complete burial of an adolescent male (Paglicci II) was found in the Evolved Gravettian layers at Grotta Paglicci (Rignano Garganico, Foggia, Southern Italy). Nearly 20 years after (1988–1989), the burial of a young woman belonging to the same cultural complex (Paglicci III) was brought to light. The re-examination of ochre and grave goods/parures from both burials provided new insights about the ritual behaviour and the technological know-how in raw material processing of the Gravettian groups. Analyses were carried out by means of 3D optical microscopy, polarized light microscopy in thin section, XRD, ICP-OES, SEM, TEM, HPLC and ToF-SIMS. Investigation was performed on a fragment of manganese oxides bearing deep incisions (discovered between the ankles of Paglicci II), which is nearly unique in the Upper Palaeolithic funerary contexts. Use-wear observations on this block suggested that it was used to obtain black pigment with different kinds of actions. Ochre materials were analysed in order to identify their nature and their processing techniques. This study was integrated with the study of a sample of natural local reddish soil and with experimental analyses carried out by grinding coarse hematites under various operative conditions. Results detected the characteristics of raw materials: a nanosized hematite-rich clayey natural material, likely technologically ready for use (Paglicci III ochre), and a mixture of a clayey–silty sand with a natural earthy-micaceous hematite (Paglicci II ochre). New inferences from the behavioural standpoint (such as the use/non-use of the grave goods, the connection between the parure shells and the sex of the dead and the hairstyling of the woman) as well as a range of possible raw material procurement sources are discussed.

The possibility to interpret prehistoric tools function, that in many cases constitutes the only preserved evidence of a certain human group activities, allows to acquire information on the poor knowledge of prehistoric daily way of life such as subsistence strategies and environmental exploitation adopted during prehistory. Starting with the English translation, in 1964, of the reference work of the sovietic archaeologist S. A. Semenov Prehistoric Technology, the discipline of functional analysis on prehistoric stone tools became more and more diffused since becoming nowadays a very significant issue for the studies on stone tools operative chains. The method is based on the recognition of the microscopic alterations that endures the surface of stone tools (among which flint is one of the most used) when the rock surface enters in contact with the worked material. The information that can be obtained from this type of study regard the activity carried out by the implement (its cinematic e.g. to abrade, to cut) and the worked material (skin, bone, wood). The heuristic devices suitable for the observation of use-wear traces are currently optical and electronic microscopes (metallographic microscope, SEM and AFM). In this paper we propose an overview on such methodological application in the field of prehistoric studies with reference to the on going research.

We successfully combined ultrastructure and chloroplast DNA analysis for single specimens of Concentricystis isolated from Holocene sediment by a palynology method based on filtration, progressive sieving and percoll-gradient sedimentation to concentrate fossil cells. We compared our method with the traditional harsh chemical treatment commonly used to isolate fossil pollen and spores. With our method, the cytoplasm of Concentricystis was sufficiently preserved to distinguish several cell structures by light and electron microscopy. DNA analysis of Concentricystis involved PCR amplification using specific primers for a spacer region of the chloroplast genome. Significant homologies were found with the Angiosperm chloroplast genome by BLAST DNA search for PCR product sequences.

The Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition, between 50 000 and 40 000 years ago, is a period of important ecological and cultural changes. In this framework, the Rock Shelter of Uluzzo C (Apulia, southern Italy) represents an important site due to Late Mousterian and Uluzzian evidence preserved in its stratigraphic sequence. Here, we present the results of a multidisciplinary analysis performed on the materials collected between 2016 and 2018 from the Uluzzian stratigraphic units (SUs) 3, 15 and 17. The analysis involved lithic technology, use-wear, zooarchaeology, ancient DNA of sediments and palaeoproteomics, completed by quartz single-grain optically stimulated luminescence dating of the cave sediments. The lithic assemblage is characterized by a volumetric production and a debitage with no or little management of the convexities (by using the bipolar technique), with the objective to produce bladelets and flakelets. The zooarchaeological study found evidence of butchery activity and of the possible exploitation of marine resources, while drawing a picture of a patchy landscape, composed of open forests and dry open environments surrounding the shelter. Ancient mitochondrial DNA from two mammalian taxa were recovered from the sediments. Preliminary zooarchaeology by mass spectrometry results are consistent with ancient DNA and zooarchaeological taxonomic information, while further palaeoproteomics investigations are ongoing. Our new data from the re-discovery of the Uluzzo C Rock Shelter represent an important contribution to better understand the meaning of the Uluzzian in the context of the Middle/Upper Palaeolithic transition in south-eastern Italy.

The techno-functional analysis of the lithic assemblages from the Mousterian of Santa Croce has evidenced the complementarity of the two main knapping processes: the laminar débitage, which is characterized by a higher level of standardization, proves to have a more specialized function with respect to the discoid débitage, which is allotted instead to other more diversified activities. It is interesting to note that the opportunistic use of rejuvenation flakes and core residuals responds to the selection of standards, allowing us to assimilate this category to the objectives of discoid production.

Hammerstones and anvils are among the oldest tools used by hominins to perform a variety of tasks including knapping activities. The bipolar technique on anvil is well documented in Prehistory since the Lower Palaeolithic and is usually considered to be an expedient technique in comparison to other knapping systems. This technique plays a pivotal role in the Uluzzian techno-complex lithic production where it is largely used. In the present study, we analyse the anvils and hammerstones recovered in the Mousterian and Uluzzian layers of the site of Castelcivita (Campania region-southern Italy) by a multi-disciplinary approach. Our aim is to investigate the function and functioning of anvils and hammerstones by evaluating the presence and the role of bipolar knapping in these two assemblages. To do this, we integrated techno-functional analysis (sensu Boeda) and use-wear study, by defining each techno-functional unit (transformative and prehensile unities) of anvils and hammerstones and identifying the specific use-wear left by the bipolar technique by means of a dedicated experimental programme. The obtained results allowed us to observe different technical behaviours, concerning both the production and the use of hammerstones and anvils, between Mousterian and Uluzzian. Differences were encountered in the selection of raw material (limestone in the Uluzzian, sandstone in the Mousterian) and in the technical way of approaching the tool as well as in the function: the Mousterian anvil was used ‘as is’ for crushing materials, unlike the Uluzzian anvils which were exclusively employed for bipolar knapping, after adapting their original volume. Hammerstones were mainly used as pestles or retouchers in the Mousterian and for direct percussion in knapping activities during the Uluzzian.

A 3800 year-long radiocarbon-dated and highly-resolved palaeoecological record from Lake Fimon (N-Italy) served to investigate the effects of potential teleconnections between North Atlantic and mid-to-low latitudes at the transition from Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 3 to 2. Boreal ecosystems documented in the Fimon record reacted in a sensitive way to millennial and sub-millennial scale Northern Hemisphere atmospheric circulation patterns. The high median time-resolution of 58 years allows the identification of five abrupt event-boundaries (i.e., main forest expansion and decline excursions) synchronous with the sharp stadial/interstadial (GS/GI) transitions within dating uncertainties. During Heinrich Stadial 3 (HS 3) we reconstruct more open and dry conditions, compared to the other GS, with a dominant regional scale fire signal. Linkages between local fires and climate-driven fuel changes resulted in high-magnitude fire peaks close to GI/GS boundaries, even exacerbated by local peatland conditions. Finally, palaeoecological data from the HS 3 interval unveiled an internal variability suggesting a peak between 30,425 and 29,772 cal BP (2σ error) which matches more depleted δ18O values in alpine speleothems. We hypothesise that this signal, broadly resembling that of other mid-latitudes proxies, may be attributed to the southward shift of the Northern Hemisphere storm tracks and the associated delayed iceberg discharge events as documented during other HS.