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We demonstrate the feasibility of generating thousands of transgenic Drosophila melanogaster lines in which the expression of an exogenous gene is reproducibly directed to distinct small subsets of cells in the adult brain. We expect the expression patterns produced by the collection of 5,000 lines that we are currently generating to encompass all neurons in the brain in a variety of intersecting patterns. Overlapping 3-kb DNA fragments from the flanking noncoding and intronic regions of genes thought to have patterned expression in the adult brain were inserted into a defined genomic location by site-specific recombination. These fragments were then assayed for their ability to function as transcriptional enhancers in conjunction with a synthetic core promoter designed to work with a wide variety of enhancer types. An analysis of 44 fragments from four genes found that >80% drive expression patterns in the brain; the observed patterns were, on average, comprised of D. melanogaster genome contains >50,000 enhancers and that multiple enhancers drive distinct subsets of expression of a gene in each tissue and developmental stage. We expect that these lines will be valuable tools for neuroanatomy as well as for the elucidation of neuronal circuits and information flow in the fly brain.

Analysis of EST and cDNA collections from a number of metazoan species has identified genes encoding long polyadenylated transcripts that do not contain ORFs of lengths typical for protein-encoding mRNAs. Noncoding functions of such polyadenylated transcripts have been elucidated in only a few examples. The corresponding genes neither contain hallmark sequence motifs nor appear to have been conserved across phyla. Thus, it is impossible to systematically identify new members of this class of gene by using sequence homology and traditional gene-finding algorithms that depend on protein-coding potential. Consequently, even their approximate number has not been established for any metazoan genome. We curated polyadenylated transcripts with limited protein-coding capacity from intergenic regions of the Drosophila melanogaster genome. We used RT-PCR assays, hybridization to RNA blots and whole-mount embryos, and computational analyses to characterize candidate transcripts. We verify the structures and expression of 17 distinct, likely non-protein-coding polyadenylated transcripts. We show that the expression of many of these transcripts is conserved in other Drosophila species, indicating that they have important biological functions.

Five years after the completion of the sequence of the Drosophila melanogaster genome, the number of protein-coding genes it contains remains a matter of debate; the number of computational gene predictions greatly exceeds the number of validated gene annotations. We have assembled a collection of >10,000 gene predictions that do not overlap existing gene annotations and have developed a process for their validation that allows us to efficiently prioritize and experimentally validate predictions from various sources by sequencing RT-PCR products to confirm gene structures. Our data provide experimental evidence for 122 protein-coding genes. Our analyses suggest that the entire collection of predictions contains only ≈700 additional protein-coding genes. Although we cannot rule out the discovery of genes with unusual features that make them refractory to existing methods, our results suggest that the D. melanogaster genome contains ≈14,000 protein-coding genes.

A fundamental goal of genetics and functional genomics is to identify and mutate every gene in model organisms such as Drosophila melanogaster. The Berkeley Drosophila Genome Project (BDGP) gene disruption project generates single P-element insertion strains that each mutate unique genomic open reading frames. Such strains strongly facilitate further genetic and molecular studies of the disrupted loci, but it has remained unclear if P elements can be used to mutate all Drosophila genes. We now report that the primary collection has grown to contain 1045 strains that disrupt more than 25% of the estimated 3600 Drosophila genes that are essential for adult viability. Of these P insertions, 67% have been verified by genetic tests to cause the associated recessive mutant phenotypes, and the validity of most of the remaining lines is predicted on statistical grounds. Sequences flanking >920 insertions have been determined to exactly position them in the genome and to identify 376 potentially affected transcripts from collections of EST sequences. Strains in the BDGP collection are available from the Bloomington Stock Center and have already assisted the research community in characterizing >250 Drosophila genes. The likely identity of 131 additional genes in the collection is reported here. Our results show that Drosophila genes have a wide range of sensitivity to inactivation by P elements, and provide a rationale for greatly expanding the BDGP primary collection based entirely on insertion site sequencing. We predict that this approach can bring >85% of all Drosophila open reading frames under experimental control.

The sequential activities of four members of the trypsin family of extracellular serine proteases are required for the production of the ventrally localized ligand that organizes the dorsal-ventral pattern of the Drosophila embryo. The last protease in this sequence is encoded by easter, which is a candidate to activate proteolytically the ligand encoded by spätzle. Here, we demonstrate biochemically that the zymogen form of Easter is processed in vivo by a proteolytic cleavage event that requires the three upstream proteases. Processed Easter is present in extremely low amounts in the early embryo because it is rapidly converted into a high molecular mass complex, which may contain a protease inhibitor. Easter zymogen activation is also controlled by a negative feedback loop from Dorsal, the transcription factor at the end of the signaling pathway. Each of these regulated biochemical processes is likely to be important in generating the ventral-to-dorsal gradient of Dorsal protein that organizes cell fates in the early embryo.

Drosophila P transposable elements encode two proteins, an 87 kd transposase protein and a 66 kd protein that has been hypothesized to repress transposition. We have made germline transformants carrying modified P element derivatives that encode only the 66 kd protein and shown that these elements repress transposase activity in both the germline and the soma. The position of these elements in the genome quantitatively affected their ability to negatively regulate transposase and to express the 66 kd protein. Single 66 kd element-containing strains did not exhibit the maternal inheritance of P cytotype characteristic of P strains. However, we demonstrated that a true P strain produced higher levels of the 66 kd protein during oogenesis than single 66 kd P elements. Thus, the expression of the 66 kd repressor during oogenesis may be a major determinant of the maternal effect of P cytotype.

The National Center for Biomedical Ontology is a consortium that comprises leading informaticians, biologists, clinicians, and ontologists, funded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Roadmap, to develop innovative technology and methods that allow scientists to record, manage, and disseminate biomedical information and knowledge in machine-processable form. The goals of the Center are (1) to help unify the divergent and isolated efforts in ontology development by promoting high quality open-source, standards-based tools to create, manage, and use ontologies, (2) to create new software tools so that scientists can use ontologies to annotate and analyze biomedical data, (3) to provide a national resource for the ongoing evaluation, integration, and evolution of biomedical ontologies and associated tools and theories in the context of driving biomedical projects (DBPs), and (4) to disseminate the tools and resources of the Center and to identify, evaluate, and communicate best practices of ontology development to the biomedical community. Through the research activities within the Center, collaborations with the DBPs, and interactions with the biomedical community, our goal is to help scientists to work more effectively in the e-science paradigm, enhancing experiment design, experiment execution, data analysis, information synthesis, hypothesis generation and testing, and understand human disease.

An annotation is any feature that can be tied to genomic sequence, such as an exon, transcript, promoter, or transposable element. As biological knowledge increases, annotations of different types need to be added and modified, and links to other sources of information need to be incorporated, to allow biologists to easily access all of the available sequence analysis data and design appropriate experiments. The Apollo genome browser and editor offers biologists these capabilities. Apollo can display many different types of computational evidence, such as alignments and similarities based on BLAST searches (UNITS 3.3 & 3.4), and enables biologists to utilize computational evidence to create and edit gene models and other genomic features, e.g., using experimental evidence to refine exon-intron structures predicted by gene prediction algorithms. This protocol describes simple ways to browse genome annotation data, as well as techniques for editing annotations and loading data from different sources.

A comparative analysis of the genomes of Drosophila melanogaster , Caenorhabditis elegans , and Saccharomyces cerevisiae —and the proteins they are predicted to encode—was undertaken in the context of cellular, developmental, and evolutionary processes. The nonredundant protein sets of flies and worms are similar in size and are only twice that of yeast, but different gene families are expanded in each genome, and the multidomain proteins and signaling pathways of the fly and worm are far more complex than those of yeast. The fly has orthologs to 177 of the 289 human disease genes examined and provides the foundation for rapid analysis of some of the basic processes involved in human disease.

A contiguous sequence of nearly 3 Mb from the genome of Drosophila melanogaster has been sequenced from a series of overlapping P1 and BAC clones. This region covers 69 chromosome polytene bands on chromosome arm 2L, including the genetically well-characterized "Adh region." A computational analysis of the sequence predicts 218 protein-coding genes, 11 tRNAs, and 17 transposable element sequences. At least 38 of the protein-coding genes are arranged in clusters of from 2 to 6 closely related genes, suggesting extensive tandem duplication. The gene density is one protein-coding gene every 13 kb; the transposable element density is one element every 171 kb. Of 73 genes in this region identified by genetic analysis, 49 have been located on the sequence; P-element insertions have been mapped to 43 genes. Ninety-five (44%) of the known and predicted genes match a Drosophila EST, and 144 (66%) have clear similarities to proteins in other organisms. Genes known to have mutant phenotypes are more likely to be represented in cDNA libraries, and far more likely to have products similar to proteins of other organisms, than are genes with no known mutant phenotype. Over 650 chromosome aberration breakpoints map to this chromosome region, and their nonrandom distribution on the genetic map reflects variation in gene spacing on the DNA. This is the first large-scale analysis of the genome of D. melanogaster at the sequence level. In addition to the direct results obtained, this analysis has allowed us to develop and test methods that will be needed to interpret the complete sequence of the genome of this species. Before beginning a Hunt, it is wise to ask someone what you are looking for before you begin looking for it. Milne 1926

P element transposition in Drosophila is controlled by the cytotype regulatory state: in P cytotype, transposition is repressed, whereas in M cytotype, transposition can occur. P cytotype is determined by a combination of maternally inherited factors and chromosomal P elements in the zygote. Transformant strains containing single elements that encoded the 66-kD P element protein zygotically repressed transposition, but did not display the maternal repression characteristic of P cytotype. Upon mobilization to new genomic positions, some of these repressor elements showed significant maternal repression of transposition in genetic assays, involving a true maternal effect. Thus, the genomic position of repressor elements can determine the maternal vs. zygotic inheritance of P cytotype. Immunoblotting experiments indicate that this genomic position effect does not operate solely by controlling the expression level of the 66-kD repressor protein during oogenesis. Likewise, P element derivatives containing the hsp26 maternal regulator sequence expressed high levels of the 66-kD protein during oogenesis, but showed no detectable maternal repression. These data suggest that the location of a repressor element in the genome may determine maternal inheritance of P cytotype by a mechanism involving more than the overall level of expression of the 66-kD protein in the ovary.

Background: The recent completion of the Drosophila melanogaster genomic sequence to high quality and the availability of a greatly expanded set of Drosophila cDNA sequences, aligning to 78% of the predicted euchromatic genes, afforded FlyBase the opportunity to significantly improve genomic annotations. We made the annotation process more rigorous by inspecting each gene visually, utilizing a comprehensive set of curation rules, requiring traceable evidence for each gene model, and comparing each predicted peptide to SWISS-PROT and TrEMBL sequences. Results: Although the number of predicted protein-coding genes in Drosophila remains essentially unchanged, the revised annotation significantly improves gene models, resulting in structural changes to 85% of the transcripts and 45% of the predicted proteins. We annotated transposable elements and non-protein-coding RNAs as new features, and extended the annotation of untranslated (UTR) sequences and alternative transcripts to include more than 70% and 20% of genes, respectively. Finally, cDNA sequence provided evidence for dicistronic transcripts, neighboring genes with overlapping UTRs on the same DNA sequence strand, alternatively spliced genes that encode distinct, non-overlapping peptides, and numerous nested genes. Conclusions: Identification of so many unusual gene models not only suggests that some mechanisms for gene regulation are more prevalent than previously believed, but also underscores the complex challenges of eukaryotic gene prediction. At present, experimental data and human curation remain essential to generate high-quality genome annotations.

The well-established inaccuracy of purely computational methods for annotating genome sequences necessitates an interactive tool to allow biological experts to refine these approximations by viewing and independently evaluating the data supporting each annotation. Apollo was developed to meet this need, enabling curators to inspect genome annotations closely and edit them. FlyBase biologists successfully used Apollo to annotate the Drosophila melanogaster genome and it is increasingly being used as a starting point for the development of customized annotation editing tools for other genome projects.

Technology has created moral dilemmas in recent years creating an increased interest in the field of bioethics, which affects engineers in biomedicine, physicians, other health-care professionals, and society in general. For example devices like the kidney dialysis machine or Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) diagnostic scanner demonstrate state-of-the-art capabilities, yet they are very expensive. Therefore, standards of the past involving health care and allocation of resources are changing, and professionals must be aware of this change, as well as the responsibility for complete testing and review during the research and development process of medical devices. In this paper, we illustrate technological impact and stress the necessity of an understanding of ethics in order to deal effectively with product liability, conflicts of interests, and allocation of scarce resources. Hopefully, this will result in awareness and education in ethics and professional responsibilities.

Publisher Summary Transposable P elements are a family of mobile genetic elements found in Drosophila. They are responsible for the syndrome of genetic traits known as hybrid dysgenesis. This chapter discusses molecular biology of Drosophila P- element transposition. P elements are a family of transposable elements found in the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster . They are the causative agents of a syndrome of correlated genetic traits, known as hybrid dysgenesis, that occurs in the progeny of a cross between males carrying P elements (P-strains) and females that lack them (M-strains). It is known that P-element transposition is controlled genetically and only occurs when a P-strain male is mated to an M-strain female but not in the reciprocal M-male × P-female cross and in a P × P cross. P-element transposition also exhibits tissue specificity, occurring only in the germ line. P elements have been extensively analyzed at the molecular level and are known to encode two proteins: an 87-kDa protein that appears to be the transposase required for the high rates of P-element transposition as well as for the precise and imprecise excision of P elements, and a second, smaller protein of 66-kDa postulated to be a negative regulator of transposition.