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Past experimental research suggests that attitudes towards corrective taxes may depend on whether they are levied on the supply side or on the demand side of the market, violating the well-known Tax Liability-Side Equivalence Principle. Other experimental research has shown that consumers are more likely to oppose the introduction of corrective taxes if their benefits occur only in the future. This paper tests whether manipulating the statutory incidence of the tax interferes with the negative delay effect on public support for taxation. Data from our experiment show that the delay effect is robust regardless of the statutory incidence of the tax.

In this paper, we study the ability of the 19th-century Italian government to choose profit maximizing prices for a multiproduct monopolist. We use very detailed historical data on the tobacco consumption in 62 Italian provinces from 1871 to 1888 to estimate a differentiated product demand system. The demand conditions and the legal environment of the period made this market as close to a textbook monopoly as is practically possible. The government’s stated aim for this industry was profit maximization: since at the time profits from tobacco were close to 10% of the revenues for the cash-strapped government, the stated aim was very likely the true one. Our empirical application uses historical price and cost data, and suggests that the government was not wide off the mark: the tobacco prices were ‘not far’ from those dictated by the multiproduct monopoly formulae for profit maximization with interdependent demand functions.

This paper addresses one of the main empirical problems associated with rational addiction theory, namely, that its derived demand equation is not empirically distinguishable from those of models with forward-looking behavior but with time-inconsistent preferences. Using an encompassing general specification of the rational addiction model we derive a microfounded test of time-consistency. The test allows us to distinguish between time-consistent versus time-inconsistent naive agents. The results obtained from a panel of Russian individuals conform to the theoretical predictions of the rational addiction model and the proposed test for time-consistency does not reject the hypothesis that Russian cigarette consumers are time-consistent.

People often experience the benefits of taxation over time. We design an intertemporal market experiment with negative externalities to examine how delaying the benefits of taxation affects support for taxes. We find that when negative externalities occur immediately, people learn to adopt Pigouvian taxes, which are aimed at reducing negative externalities and restoring market efficiency. By contrast, when negative externalities are delayed, people are less receptive to taxation. This effect persists over time. Our data reveal that the strong negative delay effect can be explained in large part by narrow bracketing and the increased perceived complexity of the environment, rather than by time discounting per-se. We argue and demonstrate that increasing the transparency of intertemporal tradeoffs can effectively promote support for taxation.

This paper examines the impact of overweight family members on weight outcomes of Italian children aged 6–14 years. We use an original dataset matching the 2012 cross sections of the Italian Multipurpose Household Survey and the Household Budget Survey. Since the identification of within-family peer effects is known to be challenging, we implement our analysis on a partially identified model using inferential procedures recently introduced in the literature and based on standard Bayesian computation methods. We find evidence of a strong, positive effect of both overweight peer children in the family and of overweight adults on children weight outcomes. The impact of overweight peer children in the household is larger than the impact of adults. In particular, the estimated confidence sets associated to the peer children variable is positive with upper bound around one or larger, while the confidence sets for the parameter associated to obese adults often include zero and have upper bound that rarely is larger than one.

First Online: 31 August 2018 This paper proposes and tests a better-defined interpretation of the different responses of gasoline demand to tax changes and to market-related price changes. Namely, the signaling effect of gasoline taxes is one that impacts on long-run consumer decisions in addition to the incentives provided by tax-inclusive gasoline prices. Our hypothesis is tested using a complete demand system augmented with information on gasoline taxes and fitted to household-level data from the 2006 to 2013 rounds of the US Consumer Expenditure survey. Information on gasoline taxes is found to be a significant determinant of household demand additional to tax-inclusive gasoline prices. The equity implications are examined by contrasting the incidence across income distribution of a simulated $0.22/gallon tax increase to that of a market-related price increase equal in size. The tax increase is clearly regressive, slightly more than the market-related price increase. However, regressivity is by no means a reason to give up gasoline taxes as an instrument for reducing gasoline consumption externalities. Their high effectiveness in reducing gasoline demand implies that small tax increases can substantially improve the environment while minimizing the related distributional effects. Also, gasoline taxes generate revenue that can be used to offset their regressivity.

This article develops a formal model of spontaneous recovery from pathological addiction. It regards addiction as a progressive susceptibility to stochastic environmental cues and introduce a cognitive appraisal process in individual decision making depending on past addiction experiences and on their future expected consequences. This process affects consumption choices in two ways. The reward from use decreases with age. At the same time, cognitive incentives emerge that reduce the probability of making mistakes. In addition to modeling the role of cue-triggered mistakes in individual decision making, the analysis highlights the role of other factors such as subjective self-evaluation and cognitive control. The implications for social policy and for the treatment of drug and alcohol dependence are discussed.

In this paper we study the ability of the 19-th century Italian government to choose profit maximising prices for a multiproduct monopolist. We use very detailed historical data on the tobacco consumption in 62 Italian provinces from 1871 to 1888 to estimate a differentiated product demand system. The demand conditions and the legal environment of the period made this market as close to a textbook monopoly as is practically possible. The government’s stated aim for this industry was profit maximisation: since at the time tobacco revenues constituted between 10 and 15 percent of the revenues for the cash-strapped government, the stated aim was very likely the true one. Cost data for the nine products suggest that the government was not wide off the mark: the tobacco prices were “not far” from those dictated by the standard monopoly formulae for profit maximisation with interdependent demand functions.

This article estimates expenditure-dependent equivalence scales for Italian couples with and without children. Following Donaldson and Pendakur (2006), the generalised absolute equivalence-scale exactness (GAESE) restrictions are incorporated into a translated quadratic almost ideal demand system. We obtain declining-with-expenditure equivalence scales, a pattern that tends to strengthen when the number of children increases. Thus, scale economies in current consumption are lower for families with poor expenditure capacities. We also show that families living in the South bear a substantial additional cost to achieve the same well-being of those living in the North. Finally, we find that ignoring the declining with expenditure pattern may involve a relevant understatement of measured inequality.

This paper estimates dynamic demand models for tobacco consumption in Italy from 1871 to 2010. The empirical analysis is based on an entirely new dataset. Because the tobacco sector was mostly managed by the state, rich and detailed historical documentation is available. Price elasticities are estimated both for aggregate tobacco consumption and its four major components (cigars, cigarettes, cut tobacco, and snuff) for three separate sub-periods: 1871–1913, 1919–1939, and 1946–2010. Elasticities consistently belong to a narrow set. We discuss the public policy implications of a seemingly iso-elastic tobacco demand function

This article deals with the estimation of parametric equivalence scales for Italian households with different demographic characteristics: composition, location and number of employed members in the household. Using a sample of 43,701 observations on monthly current expenditures from 1997 to 2004 we estimate a demand system for ten goods and we tackle the problem of corner solutions for some goods adopting the Two Step estimator proposed by Shonkweiler and Yen (Am J Agric Econ 81:972–982, 1999). The consumption behavior of households is also analyzed calculating compensated, uncompensated and expenditure elasticites for each commodity. By considering households that differ in composition (number of children), geographic location (four-different macro-areas of Italy), and number of employed adults, we allow for a range of useful comparisons.

Available online 22 February 2016. Is version of EUI RSCAS WP; 2014/54; Climate Policy Research Unit (CPRU). This paper offers new evidence concerning the difference in consumers’ reactions to changes in gasoline taxes relative to market-induced changes in gasoline prices. Using microdata from the 2007 to 2009 rounds of the U.S. Consumer Expenditure Survey, we estimate a complete system of demand augmented with information on gasoline excise taxes. By relying on a complete system of demand, we are able to estimate elasticities that take behavioral responses into account. Crucially, the model allows gasoline taxes to affect demand in two distinct ways: through relative prices and as long-run policy signals. Different increases in gasoline taxes are considered for simulation. A 13.2 ¢/gallon tax increase, corresponding to a $15/tCO2 carbon tax, is found to cause, in the long run, a reduction in gasoline demand that is about seven times as big as that induced by an equal market-induced price increase. The same measure of differential demand response is derived for tax increases different in size as well as by income quintile and by region. We discuss the implications of our findings for the design of corrective taxation in the private transport sector.

In this work the welfare effects and the distributive impact on Italian households of the Italian Carbon tax are calculated. The Carbon tax has been introduced in Italy at the beginning of 1999 asking for smooth increases, over a number of years, in the prices of most fossil fuels. Its welfare effects have been calculated using True Cost of Living index numbers and the Compensating Variation. The parameters have been obtained through estimation of a complete Almost Ideal demand system, using households data from 1985 to 1996. The welfare loss turns out to be quite substantial and affects Italian households in a non-negligible way, but the distribution of welfare losses across different levels of total monthly expenditures does not allow sustaining the regressivity of Carbon taxation, as the effect becomes bigger as we move up the income distribution. This evidence might encourage the use of Carbon taxes, at least in the transport sector, as cost-effective instruments of environmental policy, especially after the ratification of the Kyoto Protocol on Climate Change.

The paper explores the role of Environmental Defensive Expenditures in the consumption behaviour of Italian households. Environmental Defensive Expenditures are not borne to increase households' welfare, but to prevent or avoid the effects of a worsening environmental quality. The literature on environmental accounting argues that economic growth in industrialized countries is accompanied by an increasing load of defensive activities that may lead to a reorientation of consumption behaviour. In this work this hypothesis is tested using annual data on mean consumption expenditures of Italian households from 1985 to 1996. A complete system of demand is estimated and short-run price elasticities of demand for Defensive Expenditures are calculated. The complete system of demand functions is specified using the Quadratic Almost Ideal Demand System proposed by Banks, Blundell and Lewbel. Results show that there is very low substitution between the demand for the six aggregate goods in which total expenditure is...

Preface 1. Introduction Part I: Income and environmental quality - Theory and Empirics 2. Willingness to Pay for Environmental Quality 3. The Income Elasticity of the Impact of Climate Change Part II: The Distributional Incidence of Benefits of Environmental Improvements 4. Environmental Goods and the Distribution of Income Environment and Resource Economics 5. How Much do we Care about Air Quality Improvements? Evidence from Italian Households Part III: The Distributional Incidence of the Costs of Environmental Policies: the case of carbon/energy taxes 6. Household level studies on the distributional impact of carbon/energy taxes 7. Firm level studies on the distributional impact of carbon/energy taxes 8. Distributional Effects of Carbon Pricing in Ireland: a CGE approach Part IV: The Role of Fairness and Distributional Weights in Environmental Public goods Provision 9. Distributional Weights in Cost-Benefit Analysis. Should we forget about them? 10. Fair Air: Distributive Justice and Environmental Economics

This paper presents the first ever statistical reconstruction of annual tobacco consumption in Italy from 1871 to 2010. The time series of total tobacco is disaggregated into its four major components (cigars, cigarettes, cut tobacco, and snuff), both in physical and monetary term. Our task was largely facilitated by the peculiar institutional setting concerning the Italian case. From 1862 to recent years, the tobacco sector has been managed by the State under a regime of public monopoly so that a rich and detailed documentation is available. Using standard estimation techniques, demand models for aggregate tobacco are estimated for three separate sub-periods: 1871-1913, 1919-39, and 1946-2010. Price elasticities, estimated over a time period covering about one and a half centuries, belong constantly to a narrow [-.25, -.75] set. The result that the demand for tobacco is not elastic to its price constitutes apparently a re-invention of the wheel. Less so, when one considers that over the last 150 years policy perspectives and individual attitudes towards consumption of tobacco have changed dramatically.

In this paper we contribute new results on the different consumers’ reaction to tax or price changes. We separately compute the compensated gasoline retail price elasticity and the gasoline tax elasticity and show that consumers overreact to taxes as compared to price variations. A novel element in our analysis is that we compare reactions to tax-inclusive retail prices to reactions to information on excise taxes that is made available to consumers. We estimate a complete system of demand for the U.S. population of households using quarterly data from the Consumer Expenditure Survey from 2007 to 2009. Relying on a complete system of demands rather than on single equations avoids imposing an implausible separability restriction, thus allowing estimation of accurate elasticities that take behavioral responses into account, i.e. that account for the way in which consumers reallocate their expenditure on a bundle of goods after a price/tax change in one of the goods. Our analysis shows that the reaction to a gasoline tax change is, on average, about 20% stronger than the reaction to a corresponding price change. We discuss the implications of our findings for the design of energy policies.

The purpose of this study is to identify the drivers of the Willingness to Pay (WTP) for air quality improvements in Italy. A better understanding of which factors, besides income, influence the willingness to pay for air quality improvements is important to guide future air quality policy. We estimate the WTP for air quality improvements in Italy using a novel approach (Ebert, 2007) and a unique dataset obtained by merging data on Italian households’ monthly current expenditure and information on a bundle of air pollutants’ concentrations. We find a WTP for air quality improvements between 2 and 10 Euros/month per household. We then consider how WTP varies by location of the household, the level of air quality and over time. We find higher WTP values for the Northwest and the Centre of Italy where the big metropolitan areas are located. We also observe that the WTP for air quality improvements declines as the level of air quality improves. Finally, the value of improvements in air quality decreases over time, maybe signaling a change of preferences.

This paper deals with one of the main theoretical and empirical problems associated with the rational addiction model, namely that the demand equation derived from the rational addiction theory is not empirically distinguishable from models with forward-looking behavior, but with timeinconsistent preferences. The implication is that, even when forward-looking behavior can be convincingly supported, this equation cannot provide evidence in favor of time-consistent preferences against a model with dynamic inconsistency. In fact, we show that the possibility of testing for exponential versus non-exponential time discounting is nested within the rational addiction model. We propose a test of time consistency that uses only the information obtained from the general rational addiction demand equation and the price effects. A pseudo panel of Italian households is used to test for rational addiction in tobacco consumption. GMM estimators are used to deal with errors in variables and unobserved heterogeneity. The results conform to the theoretical predictions. We find evidence that tobacco consumers are forward-looking, but timeinconsistent. The values of the derived present bias and long run discount parameters are statistically significant and in line with the literature.

A panel of Italian single households is used to test for rational addiction in alcohol consumption. These monthly consumption data raise problems of measurement errors and unobservable heterogeneity. To deal with the zeros in the dependent variable we adopt a specification based on infrequency of purchase. GMM estimators are used to deal with errors in variables and unobserved heterogeneity. There is evidence that alcohol consumers are actually forward-looking. Past consumption is also significant in explaining current consumption thus detecting the addictive nature of alcohol. Discount rates, the strength of addiction, short and long run price and income elasticities are significant and in line with the theoretical predictions. These results and the inclusion of a number of demographic and geographic characters deliver valuable information for public policy purposes and suggest significant differences driven by individual heterogeneity.

This paper surveys existing approaches and empirical results to estimating the impact of Clean Indoor Air Laws on smoking behaviour, on the one hand, and on the hospitality industry, on the other. The purpose is twofold: first, identifying important gaps, if any, in the literature that could be addressed in future research; second, trying to unfold the reasons of the wide heterogeneity in the results and, as a consequence, to provide an assessment of the reliability of those results. The discussion begins with a look at the recent regulations that motivate the study of the impact of Clean Indoor Air Laws, with a special emphasis on European smoking bans. This is followed by critical reviews of studies and approaches to estimating the economic impact of Clean Indoor Air Laws. We can distinguish between a direct and an indirect effect of anti-smoking regulations: the direct effect on smoking behaviour and the indirect effect on the economic performance of the hospitality industry. The first review assesses those studies and approaches that have focused on the direct impact on smoking behaviour. The second review analyzes estimation of the economic impact on the hospitality industry. At the end of each of the two broad reviews, we summarize a selection of the empirical findings. The fifth section explores methodological differences and problems that may affect the empirical analysis reviewed in the previous sections with the purpose of shedding light on the wide heterogeneity in the empirical findings. The concluding section asks whether the studies reviewed in this paper place us in a better position to assess the economic impact of Clean Indoor Air Laws

This paper adopts a multi-commodity habit formation model to study whether unhealthy behaviors are related, i.e. whether there are contemporaneous and inter-temporal complementarities between alcohol and tobacco consumptions in Italy. To this aim time series data of per-capita expenditures and prices during the period 1960 to 2002 are used. Own price elasticities are negative and tobacco appears to be more responsive than alcohol demand, although both responses are less than unity. Cross price elasticities are also negative and asymmetric thus suggesting complementarity. A “double dividend” could then be exploited, because public policy needs to tackle the consumption of only one good to control the demand of both. These results show that the optimal strategy for maximizing public revenues would be to raise alcohol taxation more than tobacco taxation. Finally, past consumption of one addictive good does not significantly reinforce current consumption of the other.

We use a sample of 43,700 observations on Italian households’ current expenditures to investigate consumption patterns from 1997 to 2004, a time period which encompasses the introduction of the Euro. Compensated and uncompensated price elasticities and expenditure elasticities for ten goods and heterogeneous households are obtained from the estimated parameters of a complete Censored non linear Almost Ideal Demand System (CAIDS) with demographic shifters. To tackle the problem of corner solutions for some goods we adopt the Two Step estimator proposed by Shonkweiler and Yen (1999). Parametric equivalence scales for the investigation period 1997-2004 are also computed for households with different demographic composition and different geographical location.

In this paper we propose a model of natural recovery, a widespread yet unexplained aspect of addictive behavior, starting from the recent theory developed by Bernheim and Rangel (2004). While the Bernheim and Rangel model generates many distinctive patterns of addiction, it does not explicitly consider pathways to natural recovery. Based on insights from neurosciences, we introduce an ”implicit cognitive appraisal” process depending on past experiences as well as on future expected consequences of addictive consumption. Such function affects the individual in two ways: it erodes the payoff from use as the decision maker grows older and it increases the cognitive control competing with the hedonic impulses to use, thus reducing the probability of making mistakes. While we do recognize the importance of allowing for cue-triggered mistakes in individual decision making, our model recovers an important role for cognitive processes, such as subjective cost-benefit evaluations, in explaining natural recovery.

This paper adopts a multi-commodity habit formation model to study whether unhealthy behaviours are related, i.e. whether there are contemporaneous and inter temporal complementarities in Italian consumption of alcohol and tobacco. Own and crossprice elasticities, as well as the income elasticities, are calculated from the parameters of a semi-reduced system estimated on aggregate annual time series for alcohol and tobacco expenditures over the period 1960-2002. Own price elasticities are negative and tobacco appears to be more responsive than alcohol demand, although both responses are less than unity. Cross price elasticities are also negative and asymmetric showing that alcohol and tobacco are complements. Whereby a ”double dividend” could then be exploited, because public policy needs to tackle the consumption of one good only to control the demand of both. The asymmetry in the values of the cross price elasticities coupled with the relative magnitude of the own price responses suggest that the optimal strategy for maximizing public revenues through increases in ”sin” goods excise taxation would be to raise alcohol taxation more than tobacco. Finally, past consumption of one addictive good does not significantly reinforce current consumption of the other addictive good

We estimate tobacco demand in Italy following the rational addiction framework. Two empirical tests are performed. The first uses a pseudo panel of data and follows the approach of Baltagi and Griffin. We obtain evidence of forward-looking behavior but implausible estimates of the discount rate. The second uses a time series of per capita tobacco expenditures. In this case the data support the theory. A simulation is also carried out to assess the effects of future permanent price changes on tobacco demand. The novelty here is that expected future consumption is estimated by ordinary least squares using past and future prices as regressors instead of taking actual consumption as is usually the case in empirical tests of the rational addiction model. Results show that announcements of future price changes may be effective in curbing tobacco demand.

Since the end of the eighties the Becker and Murphy model of rational addiction has been the dominant approach to estimate addiction e ects. The main implication of the model is that public policy, in principle, should not interfere with a fully rational behaviour. However, the additional public health care costs smokers impose on non smokers could be internalised using price mechanisms, as the long run price elasticity of demand is supposed to be, according to this model, significantly higher than the short run one and higher than that obtained from alternative models of addiction, such as the habit persistence model. In this paper we estimate the demand for Tobacco and related products in Italy using PANEL data supplied by ISTAT for the twenty Italian regions. The rational addiction model is used to estimate addiction e ects following the methodological approach suggested by Baltagi and Levin (2001). The myopic addiction model is also estimated as an alternative way of modelling addiction e ects. These data seem to support the rational addiction model, although the results are not clearcut. We have thus estimated the same models using Time Series of per-capita Households Tobacco expenditures from the Italian National Accounts. In this case, the data strongly support the Rational Addiction model and produce elasticities in line with similar case studies.

Since the end of the eighties the Becker and Murphy model of rational addiction has been the dominant approach to estimate addiction effects. A rational addictive consumer, a smoker for instance, is supposed to maximize over the life cycle a stable utility function and to be fully aware of the future consequences of her addiction and chooses to be an addicted because she evaluates the benefits of addiction to be greater than its full costs. It follows that public policy should not interfere with such fully rational behaviour. On the other hand, the additional public health care costs smokers impose on non smokers could be internalised using price mechanisms, as the long run price elasticity of demand is supposed to be significantly higher than the short run one. This work tries to assess, through a review of the literature, whether the idea of rational addiction is robust, with a focus on smoking behaviour.

We simulate the welfare effects of the Carbon-Energy Tax introduced in Italy at the beginning of 1999 which asks for smooth increases, over a number of years, in the prices of most fossil fuels. The welfare effects have been calculated using True Cost of Living index numbers and their parameters have been obtained through estimation of a demand system, using households-data from 1985 to 1996. The welfare loss at the aggregate level turns out to be quite substantial and affects Italian households in a non-negligible way, but the distribution of welfare losses across different levels of total monthly expenditures does not allow sustaining the regressivity of Carbon taxation, as the effect becomes bigger as we move up the income distribution. This evidence might encourage the use of Carbon Taxes as cost-effective instruments of environmental policy, especially after the recent negotiations on Climate Change. However, other important implications of Carbon taxation such as those on competitiveness and the environmental impact are not assessed in this study.

The online version of this article unfortunately contains some errors, which were corrected as follows. Under heading Equivalence scales, Equation 17: in the equation, both delta(i) and beta(i) should have a hat. After equation 17, the sentence starting with ‘‘Given the estimate of beta(i), Eq. 7...’’ should become ‘‘Given the estimate of beta(i), Eq. 17...’’. Under heading Equivalence scales, sixth paragraph. The sentence ‘‘Adding a child to an adult’s couple is more expensive than adding a second child, but...’’ should become ‘‘Adding a child to an adult’s couple is not more expensive than adding a second child and adding....’’ Under heading Concluding remarks, second paragraph. The sentence ‘‘As the reference household is a childless couple living in the centre, the scales imply significant household economies of scales going from one to two children, but adding a third child produces a higher marginal cost in all areas of Italy, a result in line with similar studies, so...’’ should be corrected as follows

This is an attempt to measure the price elasticity of agricultural demand for chemical nitrogen in Emilia Romagna. one of the Italian regions worst hit by the problem of water eutrophication. We build up a single equation model and use the theory of cointégration and an error correction model to estimate the price elasticity of demand for nitrogen. Nitrogen turns out to be elastic, in the long run. both to its own price and to the expected output price. A simulation exercise has been carried out for the implementation of a "green tax"., Nous nous efforçons d'évaluer l'élasticité prix de la demande d'azote minéral en Emilie-Romagne, l'une des régions les plus touchées par l'eutrophisation des eaux. Il est important de savoir, pour des besoins de politique économique, si la demande d'engrais est élastique par rapport à son prix, lorsque l'on souhaite réduire la consommation d'intrants polluants. Or, les auteurs ne sont pas d'accord sur le niveau de l'élasticité prix de la demande d'azote. Nous utilisons un modèle dynamique à une équation, sous contrainte de maximisation du profit, où la demande optimale d'azote dépend de son prix, des prix escomptés à la production et des surfaces occupées. Les modèles dynamiques à une équation sont utilisés depuis longtemps pour mesurer la demande d'engrais, la relation d'équilibre étant associée à une hypothèse d'ajustement partiel. Afin d'éviter les problèmes afférents à cette hypothèse, nous estimons les paramètres d'équilibre à l'aide d'un modèle à correction d'erreurs (ECM). Pour cela, il est indispensable que les variables utilisées soient cointégrées. Nous vérifions la cointégration de deux façons : en utilisant les régressions statiques d'Engle-Granger ou la méthode du maximum de vraisemblance mise au point par Johansen. Avec ce modèle à correction d'erreur : 1) l'ajustement à une situation d'équilibre de court terme est d'environ 29% par an ; 2) l'élasticité prix de la demande d'azote est de -0,87 à court terme, et de -1,82 à l'équilibre ; 3) une hausse de 2% du prix réel de l'engrais conduirait à faire baisser sa demande de 1,6% à court terme et de 3,8% à long terme 4) une réduction prolongée des surfaces utilisées aboutit à réduire la consommation d'azote à long terme, même si l'élasticité par rapport aux facteurs fixes est nettement inférieure à 1. En simulant la mise en vigueur d'une taxe verte, nous montrons que la consommation d'azote a des chances d'être considérablement réduite quand on augmente son prix de 10 à 20%. Nous constatons aussi que le recours à une taxe peu élevée, mais sur une longue période, a plus d'incidence sur la consommation d'azote qu'une taxe plus élevée. Cela signifierait donc qu'une évolution de la technologie peut être induite par une hausse prolongée des prix., Tiezzi Silvia. Short and long-run elasticities of nitrogen demand : an application of cointegration to Italian data. In: Cahiers d'Economie et sociologie rurales, N°32, 3e trimestre 1994. Le fonctionnement des marchés agro-alimentaires. Imperfections et interventions publiques. pp. 5-19.