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We report on the changing-look nature of the active galactic nucleus (AGN) in the galaxy NGC 4156, as serendipitously discovered thanks to data acquired in 2019 at the Telescopio Nazionale Galileo (TNG) during a students' observing programme. Previous optical spectra had never shown any signatures of broad-line emission, and evidence of the AGN had come only from X-ray observations, being the optical narrow-line flux ratios unable to unambiguously denote this galaxy as a Seyfert. Our 2019 TNG data unexpectedly revealed the appearance of broad-line components in both the H$\alpha$ and H$\beta$ profiles, along with a rise of the continuum, thus implying a changing-look AGN transitioning from a type 2 (no broad-line emission) towards a (nearly) type 1. The broad-line emission has then been confirmed by our 2022 follow-up observations, whereas the rising continuum has no longer been detected, which hints at a further evolution backwards to a (nearly) type 2. The presence of broad-line components also allowed us to obtain the first single-epoch estimate of the black hole mass (log(MBH/Msun) $\sim$ 8.1) in this source. The observed spectral variability might be the result of a change in the accretion activity of NGC 4156, although variable absorption cannot be completely excluded., Comment: 9 pages, 6 figures. Accepted for publication in A&A Letters

The description of the pattern of livestock movements between herds provides essential information for both improving risk-based surveillance and to understand the likely spread of infectious diseases. This study provides a description of the temporal pattern of pig movements recorded in Italy on a 4-year period (2013–2016). Data, provided by the National Livestock registry, were described by social network analysis and the application of a walk-trap algorithm for community detection. Our results show a highly populated community located in Northern Italy, which is the focal point of the Italian industrial pig production and as a general pattern an overall decline of medium and backyard farms and an increase in the number of large farms, in agreement with the trend observed by other EU pig-producing countries. A seasonal pattern of all the parameters evaluated, including the number of active nodes in both the intensive and smaller production systems, emerged: that is characterized by a higher number of movements in spring and autumn, linked with the breeding and production cycle as pigs moved from the growing to the finishing phase and with periods of increased slaughtering at Christmas and Easter. The same pattern was found when restricting the analysis to imported pig batches. Outbreaks occurring during these periods would have a greater impact on the spread of infectious diseases; therefore, targeted surveillance may be appropriate. Finally, potential super-spreader nodes have been identified and represent 0.47% of the total number of pig holdings (n = 477). Those nodes are present during the whole study period with a similar ranking in their potential of being super-spreaders. Most of them were in Northern Italy, but super-spreaders with high mean out-degree centrality were also located in other Regions. Seasonality, communities and super-spreaders should be considered when planning surveillance activity and when applying disease control strategies.

Timely and reliable data and information availability and sharing is essential for early warning, prevention and control of transboundary diseases. While there are a growing number of global datasets capable of providing information for use in early warning systems and risk assessment (RA) tools, there are currently time-consuming data cleansing and harmonisation activities which need to be carried out before they can be reliably used and combined. Thus, using global datasets as they stand can lead to errors in RA parameterisation and results due to inherent biases in the data, e.g. missing disease prevalence data treated as a zero may inadvertently penalise those countries which do report disease outbreaks as opposed to those countries which are affected by a pathogen but do not report outbreak data. It is therefore of great importance that data are clearly provided and easy to understand and that data providers strive for greater harmonisation of database standards. In this paper the datasets utilised in the SPARE ('Spatial risk assessment framework for assessing exotic disease incursion and spread through Europe') project are described and discussed in terms of key criteria: accessibility, availability, completeness, consistency and quality. It is evident that most databases exist as information portals and not exclusively for RA purposes. Another striking issue from this assessment is the need for enhanced data sharing specifically with regards to data on illegal seizures, arthropod vector/wildlife abundance, intra-country livestock movement and national animal disease surveillance. It is hoped that the outcomes of this work will promote discussion and exchange between data providers, including the development of standardised data exchange protocols. The transformation of datasets to a common format is a considerable challenge but recommendations could and should be made on the standardisation of datasets and reporting in order to achieve a unified approach across Europe.

Background Caprine herpesvirus 1 (CpHV-1) causes neonatal mortality and reproductive failure in goats. Despite its impact on herd reproductive performance, few studies have investigated the risk factors associated with CpHV-1 infection. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to identify potential herd- and host-level risk factors associated with CpHV-1 prevalence in a goat population with heterogeneous seropositivity for CpHV-1. Results Blood samples and individual data from 4542 goats were collected from 255 herds in Piedmont, Italy. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and serum neutralization tests were carried out to detect antibodies against CpHV-1. A mixed-effects model was applied to identify any statistical association between CpHV-1 seropositivity and a set of putative host-level and herd-level risk factors. A total of 630 samples tested were found positive by ELISA (prevalence = 13.9%; 95% confidence interval (CI) 12.9–14.9). Of the 255 tested herds, 85 were classified as positive for the presence of at least one gB-positive animal (herd prevalence 33.3%, 95% CI 27.5–39.2), with a within-herd prevalence between 0.7 and 100% (Q1 = 17.6%; median = 32.3%; Q3 = 50%) (Q = quartiles). The prevalence ratios showed a statistical association with the following risk factors: breeds other than Saanen, older age, larger herd size, meat and extensive herds, and co-existence of CAEV-infected animals. Conclusions Results from this cross sectional study may help to elucidate the natural history of the infection and inform targeted strategies to control a disease with a potentially important impact on animal health and goat farming economy.

Exotic animal diseases are transboundary hazards, characterized by their capability to cover global distances, affecting animal health and welfare with significant economic losses. Their prevention is complex and requires the dynamic management of potential entry points, transmission pathways, and preventative barriers. The well-timed detection of an undefined or unexpected (exotic or re-emerging) threat could minimize the consequences due to onward transmission. As a fit for purpose framework, OIE developed the import risk assessment i.e. a risk assessment model focusing on the entrance of an exotic disease into a geographical area with naive hosts. In this paper, we propose an improvement of the model by integrating it with Social Network Analysis (SNA) accounting for within-country animal movements. Our integrated model has been used as a combined tool to better estimate the spatial probability of the introduction of at least one affected animal in Italian provinces using Bluetongue (BT) as an example. Starting from international country-specific BT prevalence data, the model estimated the probability of introduction to Italy via two different routes of release i.e. the import of infected animals or the release of infected vectors either associated with imported livestock or through windborne dispersion from Africa. The conventional OIE model estimating the probability of BT entering Italy assuming the same release probability for every Italian province was paralleled by a model integrated with outputs from SNA to account for different release probability among provinces based on animal movements. The conventional model predicted a remarkable homogeneity in the risk among the provinces with some peaks only visible during the warmest months. The model incorporating the network analysis predicted the highest risk to be in the North Eastern region of Italy but also highlighted the likely occurrence in a couple of Southern provinces, an output mirroring past occurrence of BT in Italy. Moreover, the sensitivity analysis highlighted the main role for a couple of model parameters i.e. the probability for a vector to become infected and the vaccine coverage, thus suggesting that an extra effort in vaccine campaigns could be envisaged. The ability to measure animal movements by SNA can allow the identification of geographical risk hot spots and therefore the risk-based targeting of the surveillance system.

Modelling the range of prominent vectors of pathogens is a common technique used for planning surveys, building exposure assessment estimations or addressing the impact of future climate scenarios. In most cases the recorded distribution of a target species is used together several environmental variables to capture its potential distribution, ignoring the availability of adequate hosts for the arthropod. In this study we used satellite-recorded, Fourier transformed, environmental variables of ground temperature and vegetation (NDVI) and a large dataset of records of the tick Ixodes ricinus and their hosts. The aim is to evaluate the influence of the contact rates of the ticks with the different hosts and how they impact on the raw, environmental-based distribution of the tick. These effects may alter the estimations of the distribution of the tick under future climate scenarios. This study demonstrated that the relative contribution of the hosts supporting the feeding of the tick life stages dramatically altered the expected distribution of the tick. In the study case, results support that both Passeriformes (Aves) and Rodentia-Soricomorpha contribute in different ways to the colonization of the tick along a large latitudinal gradient. However, Artiodactyla are the main supporters of the tick and enhance its presence in the fringe of its distribution area. Thus, complete data on the distribution of each host contributing to the tick's life cycle and their relative importance for the tick, should be included in the assessment of exposure by arthropods. Other results of the study suggested that more information could be obtained exploring the association of the arthropod to the variables in the environmental niche, instead of the classic approach based on a crude evaluation on the geographical space (maps).

Animal and bait poisoning data for northwest Italy collected between 2012 and 2017 were described and analyzed to estimate the risk of exposure to hazardous substances by animals. In about 4% of animals necropsied (n = 356/9512), the cause of death was poisoning and domestic pets (9.5%) and synanthropic animals (12.2%) appear to be the most involved. Furthermore, 294 out of 728 baits (40.4%) were positive for toxic substances and/or inert hazardous material. Application of a mixed-effects Poisson regression model and local cluster analysis evidenced increased risk of exposure to poisoning with altimetry (>600 m.a.s.l.) and municipality (PR = 1.6, 95%CI 1.2–2.1 for poisoning, PR = 2.2, 95%CI 1.2–4.2 for poisoning by insecticides and PR = 2.9, 95%CI 1.4–6.2 for poisoning by metaldehyde). Since the mountainous areas in the region are mostly devoted to pasture and extensive farming, the high frequency of animal and bait poisoning events may be related to farmers' need to protect their livestock and crops against foxes, wolves, rodents or wild boars. Summarizing, the type of land use and context may influence the frequency and type of toxin chosen to kill animals considered a nuisance for hunting, farming, agriculture and apiculture. Despite bans and limitations, the use of harmful substances is not perceived as an environmental threat but rather as routine pest control. Animal and bait poisoning constitute a public health concern because it is potentially harmful to humans and the environment. Our findings may inform risk communication strategies, as well as prevention and control measures for the reduction of illegal and non-targeted species poisoning.

We present a novel approach of using the multi-criteria pathogen prioritisation methodology as a basis for selecting the most appropriate case studies for a generic risk assessment framework. The approach uses selective criteria to rank exotic animal health pathogens according to the likelihood of introduction and the impact of an outbreak if it occurred in the European Union (EU). Pathogens were evaluated based on their impact on production at the EU level and international trade. A subsequent analysis included criteria of relevance to quantitative risk assessment case study selection, such as the availability of data for parameterisation, the need for further research and the desire for the case studies to cover different routes of transmission. The framework demonstrated is flexible with the ability to adjust both the criteria and their weightings to the user’s requirements. A web based tool has been developed using the RStudio shiny apps software, to facilitate this.

Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (dl-PCBs) have similar toxic, endocrine-disrupting, and carcinogenic activity. They are classified as persistent organic pollutants accumulating in the environment and the tissues of living organisms. High concentrations of PCDD/F and dl-PCB have been detected in bovine milk collected in a Piedmont valley (Northwestern Italy) since 2004.This geographic study describes the local distribution of pollution from PCDD/Fs and dl-PCBs. Since their presence in animal products could be traced back to the ingestion of contaminated fodder, dioxin levels in cow milk were related to the distribution of fodder cropland parcels. Specifically, the aim of the study was to determine, through an exploratory approach, whether the contamination was consistent with one common point source of contamination or different scattered sources.Data for PCDD/F and dl-PCB concentrations in the bulk milk from 27 herds, sampled over a 4-year period (2004–2007), were matched to the georeferenced land parcels the dairy farmers used for growing fodder. Isopleth maps of dioxin concentrations were estimated with ordinary kriging. The highest level of pollution for both PCDD/Fs and dl-PCBs was geographically juxtaposed: in both instances, the location of the local steel plant was within this extremely highly polluted area.The study results support the hypothesis for one common point source of contamination in the valley. The exploratory spatial analysis applied in this research may provide a valuable, novel approach to straightforward identification of a highly likely source of dioxin contamination of dairy products (even in the absence of top soil contamination data).

Disease incursion and transmission modelling can play an important role in elucidating important pathways and dynamics of transboundary diseases. It is an important pre-requisite for preparedness and rapid response. A model framework has been developed which makes use of global datasets to predict the probability of entry of exotic animal pathogens to European Union (EU) member states (MSs) via some of the most likely routes of introduction: legal trade of livestock and meat products, illegal trade of red meat, wild animal dispersion, windborne vector dispersion and human introduction of pets. The model was designed to be applicable for a wide range of pathogens, many of which have limited data. We demonstrate its application through four case study pathogens: African swine fever, Classical swine fever, Bluetongue and classical rabies. The model results highlight the differences in probability between EU MSs; the absolute values for entry via a given route differed across MSs whilst different pathogens were predicted as having the highest probability of entry for the same route across MSs. Scenario analyses suggested that the probability of entry was heavily influenced by the pathogen prevalence in the country of origin and the extent to which EU MSs pose a risk to each other; the greatest risk was predominantly from countries within the EU. While we believe the input data are obtained from high quality sources, there are still big issues with regards uncertainty in some areas, in particular with regards to prevalence of pathogens in vector populations and consistency of reporting of pathogen prevalence in animals across all countries of the world. Thus, it is inevitable that there is a high degree of uncertainty associated with the absolute values. However, the main strength of the model is the broad range of analyses over pathogens, EU MSs and routes of entry. The model is also relatively easy to update with new data and a web based visualisation tool has been developed which allows users to interrogate the results of the model. As such, we believe that the model proposed here can be a useful quantitative complement to current qualitative early warning systems, helping to drive risk-based surveillance activities, by providing detailed quantitative comparisons to indicate which pathogens are most likely to enter the EU, by which route and into which areas within Europe.

Summary Mosquito-borne arboviruses (MBV) represent an important health problem, causing diseases and deaths both in human and animals mainly in tropical and subtropical countries. In recent years, they have emerged also in temperate regions where they have caused epidemics. Of mounting concern among public health authorities in Europe are zoonotic mosquito-borne viruses belonging to the Flavivirus genus. The aim of this study was to carry out active surveillance on mosquitoes in two regions of northwestern Italy (Liguria and Piedmont) to gain a better knowledge of the mosquito populations by identifying potential vectors of arboviruses and to investigate arbovirus infection. A network of 61 CO2 CDC traps was placed in the study area; sampling was conducted from May to October 2011. A total of 46 677 mosquitoes was collected, identified to species level, and classified according to their vector competence. Mosquitoes collected from 16 traps, selected according to risk-based factors, were tested by biomolecular analysis to detect flavivirus infection. This study highlights the importance of entomological surveillance in northwestern Italy because most of the mosquitoes collected were found to have high vector competence. Moreover, the risk-based virological surveillance allowed to detect the presence of mosquito flavivirus RNA, phylogenetically closely related to the MMV Spanish isolate, in three pools and USUV RNA in one pool in new areas where it has not been reported previously. The availability of continuous data on mosquito populations provides invaluable information for use in cases of an epidemic emergency. Maintenance of this integrated system for the next years will provide stronger data that can inform the design of a risk-based surveillance for the early detection of the occurrence of outbreaks of tropical MBDs.

Il lavoro umano appare oggi "ridotto ai minimi termini" e avulso dal binomio individuo-impresa. La globalizzazione - con le fenomenologie della delocalizzazione, dell’ossessione per l’abbattimento dei costi del lavoro, della prevalenza della finanza sull’economia, dello sfruttamento delle persone migrate dai loro luoghi di origine e dell’esplosione del precariato - non ha di fatto depauperato la realta del lavoro come fonte della nostra vita. La nuova organizzazione del lavoro richiede una maggior capacita di lavoro mentale ad elevato contenuto di conoscenza, variabile che riporta in scena quel binomio individuo-impresa che si vuole oggi derubricato. Il precariato riduce non solo l’appartenenza al setting lavorativo ma riduce anche la partecipazione alle relazioni sociali e il significato stesso dell’individuazione e della cittadinanza: da questo punto di vista la precarizzazione del lavoro rischia di tramutarsi in un’esclusione sociale. Fenomenologia conseguente, ma non succedanea di tali tendenze, e la difficolta crescente da parte dei lavoratori precari ad organizzarsi in forme di condivisione del disagio e in progetti di emancipazione possibile. E urgente - secondo i dati della ricerca presentata - recuperare una cultura del lavoro capace di testimoniarne il significato civile e umano: il rischio del fallimento di tale prospettiva e che la precarieta non si limiti allo sfibramento economico del sistema, ma incida anche sulla costruzione dell’idea stessa di se, sui modi e sulle vie per cui il se viene alla mente.

Background Canine cancer registry data can be put to good use in epidemiological studies. Quantitative comparison of tumour types may reveal unusual cancer frequencies, providing directions for research and generation of hypotheses of cancer causation in a specific area, and suggest leads for identifying risk factors. Here we report canine cancer incidence rates calculated from a population-based registry in an area without any known specific environmental hazard. Results In its 90 months of operation from 2001 to 2008 (the observation period in this study), the population-based Piedmont Canine Cancer Registry collected data on 1175 tumours confirmed by histopathological diagnosis. The incidence rate was 804 per 100,000 dog-years for malignant tumours and 897 per 100,000 dog-years for benign tumours. Higher rates for all cancers were observed in purebred dogs, particularly in Yorkshire terrier and Boxer. The most prevalent malignant neoplasms were cutaneous mastocytoma and hemangiopericytoma, and mammary gland complex carcinoma and simplex carcinoma. Conclusions The Piedmont canine cancer registry is one of few of its kind whose operations have been consistently supported by long-term public funding. The registry-based cancer incidence rates were estimated with particular attention to the validity of data collection, thus minimizing the potential for bias. The findings on cancer incidence rates may provide a reliable reference for comparison studies. Researches conducted on dogs, used as sentinels for community exposure to environmental carcinogens, can be useful to detect excess risks in the incidence of malignant tumours in the human population.

West Nile virus and Usutu virus have established in different parts of Italy over the past 10 years. Piemonte and Liguria Regions (Northwestern Italy) are known to be nonendemic areas, despite the presence of competent vectors and environmental conditions conducive to maintaining infection. This work evidences for the first time, through an entomological surveillance implemented on the basis of risk factor approach, the presence of West Nile and Usutu viruses in Piemonte and Liguria Regions (Northwestern Italy).

West Nile virus (WNV) is a recently re-emerged health problem in Europe. In Italy, an increasing number of outbreaks of West Nile disease, with occurrences of human cases, have been reported since 2008. This is particularly true in northern Italy, where entomological surveillance systems have been implemented at a regional level. The aim of this study was to use, for the first time, all the entomological data collected in the five regions undergoing surveillance for WNV in northern Italy to characterize the viral circulation (at a spatial and temporal scale), identify potential mosquito vectors, and specify relationships between virus circulation and meteorological conditions. In 2013, 286 sites covering the entire Pianura Padana area were monitored. A total of 757,461 mosquitoes were sampled. Of these, 562,079 were tested by real-time PCR in 9,268 pools, of which 180 (1.9%) were positive for WNV. The largest part of the detected WNV sequences belonged to lineage II, demonstrating that, unlike those in the past, the 2013 outbreak was mainly sustained by this WNV lineage. This surveillance also detected the Usutu virus, a WNV-related flavivirus, in 241 (2.6%) pools. The WNV surveillance systems precisely identified the area affected by the virus and detected the viral circulation approximately two weeks before the occurrence of onset of human cases. Ninety percent of the sampled mosquitoes were Culex pipiens, and 178/180 WNV-positive pools were composed of only this species, suggesting this mosquito is the main WNV vector in northern Italy. A significantly higher abundance of the vector was recorded in the WNV circulation area, which was characterized by warmer and less rainy conditions and greater evapotranspiration compared to the rest of the Pianura Padana, suggesting that areas exposed to these conditions are more suitable for WNV circulation. This observation highlights warmer and less rainy conditions as factors able to enhance WNV circulation and cause virus spillover outside the sylvatic cycle.

Although rare in developed countries, most acquired human cases of hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection are associated with travel to developing countries where HEV is endemic. Increasingly, however, sporadic, non-travel-related HEV cases have been reported in developed countries. In Italy, only two studies to date have investigated the presence of HEV in wild boars. Here, we report a serological and virological survey of HEV in wild boar populations in northwestern Italy. During the hunting season, 594 serum and 320 liver samples were collected and screened for antibodies to HEV and HEV RNA. Overall, the seroprevalence was 4.9 %, and HEV RNA was detected in 12 liver samples (p = 3.7 %). No serum samples tested positive for HEV RNA. Phylogenetic analysis of the ORF2 region revealed that the isolates clustered within genotype 3, subtypes 3e and 3f, and were closely related to HEV strains previously detected in domestic pigs farmed in the same geographic area. Although the routes of viral transmission are still poorly understood, our data show that HEV genotypes 3e and 3f circulate in wild boars in northwestern Italy. Also, they provide evidence that autochthonous HEV infections in Italy could also be linked to wild boar populations, suggesting an increased risk for domestically acquired HEV infection in humans through wild animals. The HEV sequences determined in this study may be useful for comparing present and future human isolates to identify transmission events between wild boar, humans, and farmed pigs. Similarly to other more commonly known zoonotic agents, HEV should be included in national or regional disease surveillance programs for wild animals.

to describe the contamination due to dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs of cattle dairy and meat products in cattle herds from Susa Valley (Piedmont) since the second half of 2004.descriptive study based on a biomonitoring campaign on bovine bulk milk and muscle.the official samplings have been carried out between 2004 and 2010: the dataset refers to 99 mass milk samples and 24 muscle samples from 51 cattle herds based in 23 municipalities of the valley.counts and frequencies of samples exceeding either the maximum levels or the action levels set by the European legislation; moreover relative distributions of congeners (profiles) were considered.DL-PCBs showed median concentration values double when compared with dioxins values and a couple of congeners (2,3,4,7,8-PeCDF, 118 DL-PCB) were particularly abundant. More than 60% of both the milk samples and herds exceeded the action levels with the involvement of 10 municipalities most of which located nearby a local steel smelter. The DL-PCB values in milk were associated with the distance of each herd from the steel plant. However, the temporal trend highlights a clear decrease of the contamination over the 2004-2010 period, when the plant was renewed and the production levels where negatively impacted by the global economical crisis.the findings of the monitoring activity allowed the understanding of the origin and the spatio-temporal evolution of the contamination: this knowledge may be helpful in orienting future controls and the risk mitigation strategies.

A sudden increase in the incidence of scrapie in Italy in 1997 was subsequently linked to the use of a potentially infected vaccine against contagious agalactia. The relative risk for the exposed farms ranged between 6 and 40. The aim of this study was to assess the long-term impact of exposure to the potentially scrapie-contaminated vaccine on the Italian classical scrapie epidemic. We carried out a retrospective cohort study, fitting mixed-effects Poisson regression models, dividing national geographic areas into exposure categories on the basis of the vaccine circulation levels. We took into account the sensitivity of the surveillance system applied in the different areas. The population attributable fraction (PAF) was used to assess the impact on the total population of farms associated with the effect of circulation of the vaccine. The provinces where the vaccine was more often sold were noted to have a higher level of disease when compared to those provinces where the vaccine was sold less often (incidence rate ratio [IRR]: 2.7; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.1-6.5). The population attributable fraction was high (68.4%). Standardization techniques allowed to account for the potential of geographical variability in the sensitivity of the Italian surveillance system. Although the number of the directly exposed farms was limited, an important long-term impact of the vaccine circulation could be quantified in terms of secondary outbreaks likely due to the exchange of animals from directly exposed flocks.