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Soil pollution caused by heavy metals has emerged as one of the most significant environmental problems in the world. In such environments, specific plant species are able to grow, adapt and absorb heavy metals. Phytoremediation is an emerging technology in which higher plants are used to reclaim the contaminated environment. In this study, the possibilities of removing the pollution caused by Zn, which is applied to the loamy soil together with and without sewage sludge at increasing levels (0, 75, 150, 300, 600 and 1200 μg g-1), has been researched with certain hyperaccumulator plants such as Brassica juncea, Raphanus sativus and Silene vulgaris grown in Bafra ecological conditions. In order to clean Zn added to the soil at increasing levels with or without sewage sludge by using phytoremediation technology, Silene vulgaris was found to remove the highest amount of Zn in the soil by producing the greatest amount of biomass in the ecological conditions of the region compared to Brassica juncea and Raphanus sativus, and other hyperaccumulator plants grown in the plots. Significant differences were determined in the development of plants and Zn removal between the sludge treated and untreated plots. Water-soluble Zn, which was found at high levels in the cultivation of plants at 600 and 1200 μg g-1 Zn application doses in the sewage sludge treated plots, was determined at lower levels at the end of the harvest of the plants. In the application of increasing levels of Zn with sewage sludge, the lowest organic bound Zn was determined in the plots where Silene vulgaris was grown. The highest exchangeable Zn concentration was determined in soil samples taken after the harvest of the Raphanus sativus plant among the hyperaccumulator plants grown at all Zn application doses in the trials with and without sewage sludge application.

Soil pollution caused by heavy metals has emerged as one of the most significant environmental problems in the world. In soils, specific plant species are able to grow, adapt and absorb heavy metals. Phytoremediation is an emerging technology in which higher plants are used to reclaim the contaminated environment. In this study, the possibilities of removing the pollution caused by Zn, which is applied to the loamy soil together with and without sewage sludge at increasing levels (0, 75, 150, 300, 600 and 1200 μg g-1), has been researched with certain hyperaccumulator plants such as Brassica juncea, Raphanus sativus and Silene vulgaris grown in Bafra ecological conditions. In order to clean Zn added to the soil at increasing levels with or without sewage sludge by using phytoremediation technology, Silene vulgaris was found to remove the highest amount of Zn in the soil by producing the greatest amount of biomass in the ecological conditions of the region compared to Brassica juncea and Raphanus sativus, and other hyperaccumulator plants grown in the plots. Significant differences were determined in the development of plants and Zn removal between the sludge treated and untreated plots. Water-soluble Zn, which was found at high levels in the cultivation of plants at 600 and 1200 μg g-1 Zn application doses in the sewage sludge treated plots, was determined at lower levels at the end of the harvest of the plants. In the application of increasing levels of Zn with sewage sludge, the lowest organic bound Zn was determined in the plots where Silene vulgaris was grown. The highest exchangeable Zn concentration was determined in soil samples taken after the harvest of the Raphanus sativus plant among the hyperaccumulator plants grown at all Zn application doses in the trials with and without sewage sludge application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract To predict how widely distributed species will perform under future climate change, it is crucial to understand and reveal their underlying phylogenetics. However, detailed information about plant adaptation and its genetic basis and history remains scarce and especially widely distributed species receive little attention despite their putatively high adaptability. To examine the adaptation potential of a widely distributed species, we sampled the model plant Silene vulgaris across Europe. In a greenhouse experiment, we exposed the offspring of these populations to a climate change scenario for central Europe and revealed the population structure through whole‐genome sequencing. Plants were grown under two temperatures (18°C and 21°C) and three precipitation regimes (65, 75, and 90 mm) to measure their response in biomass and fecundity‐related traits. To reveal the population genetic structure, ddRAD sequencing was employed for a whole‐genome approach. We found three major genetic clusters in S. vulgaris from Europe: one cluster comprising Southern European populations, one cluster of Western European populations, and another cluster containing central European populations. Population genetic diversity decreased with increasing latitude, and a Mantel test revealed significant correlations between FST and geographic distances as well as between genetic and environmental distances. Our trait analysis showed that the genetic clusters significantly differed in biomass‐related traits and in the days to flowering. However, half of the traits showed parallel response patterns to the experimental climate change scenario. Due to the differentiated but parallel response patterns, we assume that phenotypic plasticity plays an important role for the adaptation of the widely distributed species S. vulgaris and its intraspecific genetic lineages.

To explore the newer saponin resources, in vitro toxicity of saponin-enriched fraction (SEF) extracted from Silene vulgaris(SV) was evaluated for first time and compared with in vitro toxicity of SEF extracted from Sapindus mukorossi (SM) and Chlorophytum borivilianum (CV). All extracted SEF from diverse resources were characterized by immersing TLC plates in 0.5% RBC suspension method, by ethanol: sulfuric acid method and by estimating hRst values. Each extracted SEF clearly portrayed specific pattern with varied hRst range. White spots against a pinkish-red background and greenish-black spots in case of immersion method and spraying method respectively were observed. After initial characterization, in vitro 0.5% sheep RBC lytic activities and VERO cell cytotoxic activities (via SRB assay) of each extracted SEF were also evaluated. Furthermore, SEF of SV showed very less hemolytic activity compared to SM and CB. The HD50 values for SV, SM, and CB were 736.7 ± 2.824, 18.0 ± 1.894, and 170.70 ± 2.783 µg/mL, respectively. SEF of SV (IC50 ≥ 200 µg/mL) was less toxic for VERO cell line than SEF of SM (IC50 = 150.8 µg/mL) and CB (IC50 = 137.1 µg/mL). Hence, the SEF of SV was found to be less toxic and can be used as a new and safer source of saponins. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To predict how widely distributed species will perform under future climate change, it is crucial to understand and reveal their underlying phylogenetics. However, detailed information about plant adaptation and its genetic basis and history remains scarce and especially widely distributed species receive little attention despite their putatively high adaptability. To examine the adaptation potential of a widely distributed species, we sampled the model plant Silene vulgaris across Europe. In a greenhouse experiment, we exposed the offspring of these populations to a climate change scenario for central Europe and revealed the population structure through whole‐genome sequencing. Plants were grown under two temperatures (18°C and 21°C) and three precipitation regimes (65, 75, and 90 mm) to measure their response in biomass and fecundity‐related traits. To reveal the population genetic structure, ddRAD sequencing was employed for a whole‐genome approach. We found three major genetic clusters in S. vulgaris from Europe: one cluster comprising Southern European populations, one cluster of Western European populations, and another cluster containing central European populations. Population genetic diversity decreased with increasing latitude, and a Mantel test revealed significant correlations between FST and geographic distances as well as between genetic and environmental distances. Our trait analysis showed that the genetic clusters significantly differed in biomass‐related traits and in the days to flowering. However, half of the traits showed parallel response patterns to the experimental climate change scenario. Due to the differentiated but parallel response patterns, we assume that phenotypic plasticity plays an important role for the adaptation of the widely distributed species S. vulgaris and its intraspecific genetic lineages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wild plants of Western Himalayas occupy an essential role to the inhabitant's livelihood. The present study evaluates the nutritional composition, phytochemicals and antioxidant activity of Stellaria monosperma and Silene vulgaris, used commonly as food and medicine by folks of Western Himalayas. These two species are facing extinction as per the IUCN Red List. The present study focused on these two plants which are used by the Gaddis (shepherds) of Western Himalayas as food. Major findings revealed that the aerial parts had high amount of carbohydrate, proteins, sodium, potassium, crude fibre and crude fat. Phytochemicals like phenols, flavonoids, tannins, terpenoids, amino acids, ascorbic acid, tocopherols, carotenoids, alkaloids and phytates were in sufficient amount, helping to deactivate and absorb free radicals. Thus, both the plants have high antioxidant activity and are good radical scavengers. These plants also exhibited antibacterial potential. Amount of nutrition, phytochemicals, antioxidant and antibacterial activity was observed more in Silene vulgaris as compared to Stellaria monosperma. The need is to bring under control these plants species for harnessing their potentials of nutrition and pharmaceutical industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The hitherto unknown oviparous females and apterous males of Brachycolus cucubali (Passerini, 1863), living in pseudogalls on Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke, (1869) (Caryophyllaceae), are described based on material from the North-West of Iberian Peninsula (Province of León). Sampling and morphometric data are given for every morph. Also, field data of monitored Brachycolus cucubali colonies are reported and information of polyphenism in males is discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Main conclusion: Results provide significant comparison of leaf anatomy, pigment content, antioxidant response and phenolic profile between individuals from miscellaneous populations and describe unified cultivation protocols for further research on stress biology. The plant communities growing on heavy metal-polluted areas have attracted considerable attention due to their unique ability to tolerate enormous amounts of toxic ions. Three ecotypes of Silene vulgaris representing calamine (CAL), serpentine (SER) and non-metallicolous (NM) populations were evaluated to reveal specific adaptation traits to harsh environment. CAL leaves presented a distinct anatomical pattern compared to leaves of SER and NM plants, pointing to their xeromorphic adaptation. These differences were accompanied by divergent accumulation and composition of photosynthetic pigments as well as antioxidant enzyme activity. In CAL ecotype, the mechanism of reactive oxygen species scavenging is based on the joint action of superoxide dismutase and catalase, but in SER ecotype on superoxide dismutase and guaiacol-type peroxidase. On the contrary, the concentration of phenylpropanoids and flavonols in the ecotypes was unchanged, implying the existence of similar pathways of their synthesis/degradation functioning in CAL and SER populations. The tested specimens showed genetic variation (atpA/MspI marker). Based on diversification of S. vulgaris populations, we focused on the elaboration of similar in vitro conditions for synchronous cultivation of various ecotypes. The most balanced shoot culture growth was obtained on MS medium containing 0.1 mg l−1 NAA and 0.25 mg l−1 BA, while the most abundant callogenesis was observed on MS medium enriched with 0.5 mg l−1 NAA and 5.0 mg l−1 BA. For the first time, unified in vitro protocols were described for metallophytes providing the opportunity to conduct basic and applied research on stress biology and tolerance mechanisms under freely controlled conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of commercially produced seed material is a common practice in restoration. However, the impact of sowing on genetic variation of natural populations is still unclear. Aim of this study was, therefore, to test if genetic variation within and among populations restored with local seed material corresponds to the genetic variation of neighboring natural populations. We investigated each ten natural and restored populations of three common grassland species (Knautia arvensis, Silene vulgaris and Plantago lanceolata), situated in five study regions in southeastern Germany. Our study revealed significant genetic differentiation between natural and restored populations of the insect-pollinated K. arvensis and S. vulgaris although differentiation was much stronger for K. arvensis since most restored populations contained another ploidy level than natural populations. For the wind-pollinated P. lanceolata, genetic differentiation between natural and restored populations was comparable to the genetic differentiation between its natural populations. Genetic diversity within restored populations of each species was equivalent or even higher than within natural populations. Our study provides evidence that the local genetic structure especially of common insect-pollinated grassland species may be affected by the application of regional seed mixtures in restoration. Regional admixed provenancing in seed production is an important approach to preserve regional patterns and to provide seeds for the reestablishment of genetically variable populations. The method would however be an even more powerful tool in restoration when ploidy levels would be checked before seed production and seed transfer zones would be smaller. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS), encoded by the interacting mitochondrial and nuclear genes, causes pollen abortion or non-viability. CMS is widely used in agriculture and extensively studied in crops. Much less is known about CMS in wild species. We performed a comparative transcriptomic analysis of male sterile and fertile individuals of Silene vulgaris, a model plant for the study of gynodioecy, to reveal the genes responsible for pollen abortion in this species. We used RNA-seq datasets previously employed for the analysis of mitochondrial and plastid transcriptomes of female and hermaphrodite flower buds, making it possible to compare the transcriptomes derived from three genomes in the same RNA specimen. We assembled de novo transcriptomes for two haplotypes of S. vulgaris and identified differentially expressed genes between the females and hermaphrodites, associated with stress response or pollen development. The gene for alternative oxidase was downregulated in females. The genetic pathways controlling CMS in S. vulgaris are similar to those in crops. The high number of the differentially expressed nuclear genes contrasts with the uniformity of organellar transcriptomes across genders, which suggests these pathways are evolutionarily conserved and that selective mechanisms may shield organellar transcription against changes in the cytoplasmic transcriptome.

Background: Silene vulgaris (bladder campion) is a gynodioecious species existing as two genders – male-sterile females and hermaphrodites. Cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS) is generally encoded by mitochondrial genes, which interact with nuclear fertility restorer genes. Mitochondrial genomes of this species vary in DNA sequence, gene order and gene content. Multiple CMS genes are expected to exist in S. vulgaris, but little is known about their molecular identity. Results: We assembled the complete mitochondrial genome from the haplotype KRA of S. vulgaris. It consists of five chromosomes, two of which recombine with each other. Two small non-recombining chromosomes exist in linear, supercoiled and relaxed circle forms. We compared the mitochondrial transcriptomes from females and hermaphrodites and confirmed the differentially expressed chimeric gene bobt as the strongest CMS candidate gene in S. vulgaris KRA. The chimeric gene bobt is co-transcribed with the Cytochrome b (cob) gene in some genomic configurations. The co-transcription of a CMS factor with an essential gene may constrain transcription inhibition as a mechanism for fertility restoration because of the need to maintain appropriate production of the necessary protein. Homologous recombination places the gene cob outside the control of bobt, which allows for the suppression of the CMS gene by the fertility restorer genes. We found the loss of three editing sites in the KRA mitochondrial genome and identified four sites with highly distinct editing rates between KRA and another S. vulgaris haplotypes (KOV). Three of these highly differentially edited sites were located in the transport membrane protein B (mttB) gene. They resulted in differences in MttB protein sequences between haplotypes. Conclusions: Frequent homologous recombination events that are widespread in plant mitochondrial genomes may change chromosomal configurations and also the control of gene transcription including CMS gene expression. Posttranscriptional processes, e.g. RNA editing shall be evaluated in evolutionary and co-evolutionary studies of mitochondrial genes, because they may change protein composition despite the sequence identity of the respective genes. The investigation of natural populations of wild species such as S. vulgaris are necessary to reveal important aspects of CMS missed in domesticated crops, the traditional focus of the CMS studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research investigated whether anther smut disease caused by Microbotryum violaceum agg. on Silene baccifera in Europe is caused by a host‐specific lineage, or if it represents a host shift of the pathogen from a related species. Characterization of ITS sequences of anther smut from S. baccifera confirmed their strong similarity to the pathogen endemic on Silene latifolia. Cross‐inoculation studies showed that S. baccifera was susceptible to anther smut isolates from S. latifolia, S. dioica and S. vulgaris; conversely isolates from S. baccifera could cause disease on S. latifolia. In an experimental field study, spore transmission from diseased S. latifolia to healthy S. baccifera was rare relative to intraspecific transmission within S. latifolia. The distribution of anther smut in natural populations based on herbarium specimens indicated that disease occurrence on S. baccifera was very sporadic. These findings strongly suggest that anther smut disease on S. baccifera in Europe is usually a temporary host shift from the self‐sustaining populations of Microbotryum on other species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The environment experienced by plants can influence the phenotype of their offspring. Such transgenerational plasticity can be adaptive when it results in higher fitness of the offspring under conditions correlated with those experienced by the mother plant. However, it has rarely been tested if such anticipatory parental effects may be induced with different environments. We grew clonal replicates of Silene vulgaris under control conditions and three types of stress (nutrient deficiency, copper addition and drought), which are known from natural populations of the species. We then subjected offspring from differently treated mother plants to each of the different stress treatments to analyse the influence of maternal and offspring environment on performance and several functional traits. Current stress treatments strongly influenced biomass and functional traits of the plants, mostly in line with responses predicted by the theory of functional equilibrium. Plant performance was also influenced by maternal stress treatments, and some effects independent of initial size differences remained until harvest. In particular, stressed mothers produced offspring of higher fitness than control plants. However, there was no evidence for treatment‐specific adaptive transgenerational plasticity, as offspring from a mother plant that had grown in a specific environment did not grow better in that environment than other plants. Our results indicate that the maternal environment may affect offspring traits and performance, but also that this transgenerational plasticity is not necessarily adaptive. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phenotypic plasticity enables plants to respond to different environmental conditions by changing morphological and physiological traits and patterns of biomass allocation. However, it is not well understood how these responses are influenced by inbreeding. We grew clones of self- and cross-pollinated offspring of Silene vulgaris (Caryophyllaceae) and measured a number of functional traits involved in stress responses under eight different treatments, including a control, drought, copper addition, simulated herbivory, and two levels of nutrient deficiency and shade. Inbreeding influenced phenotypic plasticity in some functional traits. In particular, the environmental sensitivity of four traits – stem length, leaf area, leaf chlorophyll content and specific leaf area – was lower in offspring from self- than from cross-pollination. Biomass allocation patterns changed in response to the environment in agreement with optimal partitioning theory, but were not influenced by inbreeding. Two traits potentially involved in general stress response – leaf senescence and anthocyanin production – were increased under copper stress and nutrient deficiency but reduced in the herbivory and shade treatments. Inbreeding did not increase these general stress responses, but reduced anthocyanin production in all stress treatments. Our findings suggest that by reducing phenotypic plasticity, inbreeding may limit the ability of plants to cope with changing environmental conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gynodioecy, the co-occurrence of females and hermaphrodites, is arguably the most common angiosperm gender polymorphism in many florae. Females' ability to invade and persist among hermaphrodites depends, in part, on pollinators providing adequate pollination to females. We directly measured diurnal and nocturnal pollinators' contributions to female and hermaphrodite seed production in artificial populations of gynodioecious Silene vulgaris by experimentally restricting pollinator access. We found that female relative seed production in this system depended strongly on pollination context: females produced more than twice as many seeds as hermaphrodites in the context of abundant, nectar-collecting moths. Conversely, females showed no seed production advantage in the context of pollen-collecting syrphid flies and bees due to acutely hermaphrodite-biased visitation. We infer that variation in pollinator type, behaviour and abundance may be important for achieving the female relative fitness thresholds necessary for the maintenance of gynodioecy. Generally, our study illustrates how pollinator-mediated mechanisms may influence the evolution of breeding systems and associated suites of floral traits. Segments of a pollinator community may facilitate gynodioecy by selecting for plant characteristics that increase the attractiveness of both sexes to pollinators, such as nectar rewards. Conversely, discriminating visitors in search of pollen may restrict gynodioecy in associated plant lineages by reducing male steriles' fitness below threshold levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plant-microbe interactions are considered to be important processes determining the efficiency of phytoremediation of heavy metal-contaminated soils. However, relatively little is known about how these interactions are influenced by chromium (Cr) contamination. The effect of Cr stress on metal uptake, root organic acid composition, and rhizosphere bacterial communities was studied using two genotypes of the metallophyte Silene vulgaris, which have shown different tolerance to Cr(VI). The results indicated that root biomass and shoot biomass were not significantly influenced by Cr treatment, but metal uptake in shoots and roots was significantly impacted by the genotype. Principal component analyses (PCA) showed that variation in organic acids oxalic, citric, malic, formic, lactic, acetic, and succinic differed between genotypes. Changes in root organic acid contents in response to Cr revealed a significant increase of oxalic acid in genotype SV-21. The denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) cluster analysis showed that the community structure (determined by PCR-DGGE) was affected by plant genotype and, to a lesser extent, by Cr contamination, the first being the most influential factor shaping the rhizosphere microbiome. Under Cr pollution, a shift in the relative abundance of specific taxa was found and dominant phylotypes were identified as Variovorax in SV-21 and Chitinophaga niastensis, Pontibacter sp., and Ramlibacter sp. in SV-38. These results provided the basis for further studies aimed at the combined use of plants and soil microorganisms in the remediation of Cr-polluted soils. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Silene vulgaris is a wild edible plant consumed in both raw as well as cooked forms in several parts of Europe. The phytoconstituents of Silene species include phytoecdysteroids, triterpenoidal saponins, terpenoids, flavonoids and phenolics. Silene vulgaris is a relatively unexplored species and the chemical profiling of this plant has not been attempted so far. Hence the UPLC-ESI-MS approach was applied to the extracts of flowers, leaves and roots of S. vulgaris for the profiling of phytoecdysteroids. The relative distribution of these compounds varied between flowers and leaves; however, the qualitative composition was similar. Only traces of phytoecdysteroids were present in the roots. The aglycones, sugars and other moieties were determined on the basis of ESI-MS. A total of eight previously known phytoecdysteroids were identified. Partial characterization of eight other phytoecdysteroids was also attempted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the metal behavior at the soil-root interface is of utmost significance for a successful implementation of phytoremediation. In this study, we investigated the differences in chromium (Cr) uptake, chemical changes in soil solution and the shifts in rhizosphere bacterial communities of two genotypes of Silene vulgaris (SV21, SV38) with different tolerance to Cr. A greenhouse experiment was performed in two soils that differed on pH and organic matter (OM) content. An industrial sludge with high content in Cr was used as pollution source. The soil solution in the rhizosphere was sample by Rhizon Soil Moisture Samplers. The total concentration of Cr reached the highest values in soil solution samplers from calcareous soils with poor contents in OM. Plants grown in this soil also increased the Cr uptake in roots of both genotypes, but the concentration was higher in genotype SV-38 than in SV21. The clustering analysis of denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) of 16S rRNA fragments revealed major differences in bacterial community structure related to Cr pollution, followed by soil type and finally, plant genotype. Diversity indices based on DGGE profiles were the highest in alkaline soil, and between genotypes, values were significantly greater in SV38. Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) showed that changes in bacterial community structure of rhizosphere were highly correlated with total Cr concentration and soil solution pH. The isolation and identification of S. vulgaris bacterial rhizosphere revealed a different composition according to soil type and plant genotype. Results suggested the potential role of Pseudomonas fluorescens on Cr mobilization and therefore, on enhanced metal bioavailability and may provide a starting point for further studies aimed at the combined use of tolerant plants and selected metal mobilizing rhizobacteria, in the microbial-assisted phytoremediation of Cr-polluted soils. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Differences in the size, shape, and surface relief of composite gel particles prepared using pectins from Silene vulgaris (SVCI), Tanacetum vulgare (TVB), and Lemna minor (LML) and chitosan were found using scanning electron microscopy. The adhesive properties of the composite gels depended on the pectin structural features, molecular mass (Mw) and degree of deacetylation (DD) of the chitosan included in the gel composition, and surface relief of the gel particles. Particles of pectins SVCI, TVB, LML, and chitosan with Mw 25 kDa and DD 98% had better adhesion for Escherichia coli. Pectin-chitosan particles based on TVB or SVCI and chitosan with Mw 200 kDa exhibited adhesive properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accurate gene expression measurements are essential in studies of both crop and wild plants. Reverse transcription quantitative real-time PCR (RT-qPCR) has become a preferred tool for gene expression estimation. A selection of suitable reference genes for the normalization of transcript levels is an essential prerequisite of accurate RT-qPCR results. We evaluated the expression stability of eight candidate reference genes across roots, leaves, flower buds and pollen of Silene vulgaris (bladder campion), a model plant for the study of gynodioecy. As random priming of cDNA is recommended for the study of organellar transcripts and poly(A) selection is indicated for nuclear transcripts, we estimated gene expression with both random-primed and oligo(dT)-primed cDNA. Accordingly, we determined reference genes that perform well with oligo(dT)- and random-primed cDNA, making it possible to estimate levels of nucleus-derived transcripts in the same cDNA samples as used for organellar transcripts, a key benefit in studies of cyto-nuclear interactions. Gene expression variance was estimated by RefFinder, which integrates four different analytical tools. The SvACT and SvGAPDH genes were the most stable candidates across various organs of S. vulgaris, regardless of whether pollen was included or not. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Silene vulgaris is a metallophyte of calamine, cupriferous and serpentine soils all over Europe. Its metallicolous populations are hypertolerant to zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu) or nickel (Ni), compared with conspecific nonmetallicolous populations. These hypertolerances are metal-specific, but the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood., We investigated the role of HMA5 copper transporters in Cu-hypertolerance of a S. vulgaris copper mine population., Cu-hypertolerance in Silene is correlated and genetically linked with enhanced expression of two HMA5 paralogs, Sv HMA5I and Sv HMA5 II, each of which increases Cu tolerance when expressed in Arabidopsis thaliana. Most Spermatophytes, except Brassicaceae, possess homologs of Sv HMA5I and Sv HMA5 II, which originate from an ancient duplication predating the appearance of spermatophytes. Sv HMA5 II and the A. thaliana homolog At HMA5 localize in the endoplasmic reticulum and upon Cu exposure move to the plasma membrane, from where they are internalized and degraded in the vacuole. This resembles trafficking of mammalian homologs and is apparently an extremely ancient mechanism. Sv HMA5I, instead, neofunctionalized and always resides on the tonoplast, likely sequestering Cu in the vacuole., Adaption of Silene to a Cu-polluted soil is at least in part due to upregulation of two distinct HMA5 transporters, which contribute to Cu hypertolerance by distinct mechanisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fluctuating asymmetry (FA) is often used as a measure of developmental instability and has been proposed as an indicator of both environmental and genetic stress. However, the empirical evidence for the effects of stress on FA in plants is inconsistent, and there are few controlled experimental studies. We analyzed different distance- and shape-based measures of the fluctuating asymmetry of the leaves of clonally replicated self- and cross-pollinated lineages of Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke (Caryophyllaceae) grown under a control and seven different stress treatments (drought, copper, simulated herbivory, and two levels of nutrient deficiency and of shade). Overall, FA differed among stress treatments, but was not generally higher under stress and even reduced in some treatments. Different measures of FA were only weakly correlated. Inbreeding increased only one measure of leaf FA, and only under high stress intensities. Our findings suggest that in S. vulgaris leaf fluctuating asymmetry does not serve as an indicator of environmental stress or of genetic stress by inbreeding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dioecy, a breeding system where individual plants are exclusively male or female, has evolved repeatedly. Extensive theory describes when dioecy should arise from hermaphroditism, frequently through gynodioecy, where females and hermaphrodites coexist, and when gynodioecy should be stable. Both pollinators and herbivores often prefer the pollen-bearing sex, with sex-specific fitness effects that can affect breeding system evolution. Nursery pollination, where adult insects pollinate flowers but their larvae feed on plant reproductive tissues, is a model for understanding mutualism evolution but could also yield insights into plant breeding system evolution. We studied a recently established nursery pollination interaction between native Hadena ectypa moths and introduced gynodioecious Silene vulgaris plants in North America to assess whether oviposition was biased toward females or hermaphrodites, which traits were associated with oviposition, and the effect of oviposition on host plant fitness. Oviposition was hermaphrodite-biased and associated with deeper flowers and more stems. Sexual dimorphism in flower depth, a trait also associated with oviposition on the native host plant ( Silene stellata), explained the hermaphrodite bias. Egg-receiving plants experienced more fruit predation than plants that received no eggs, but relatively few fruits were lost, and egg receipt did not significantly alter total fruit production at the plant level. Oviposition did not enhance pollination; egg-receiving flowers usually failed to expand and produce seeds. Together, our results suggest that H. ectypa oviposition does not exert a large fitness cost on host plants, sex-biased interactions can emerge from preferences developed on a hermaphroditic host species, and new nursery pollination interactions can arise as negative or neutral rather than as mutualistic for the plant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS) is a widespread phenomenon in flowering plants caused by mitochondrial (mt) genes. CMS genes typically encode novel proteins that interfere with mt functions and can be silenced by nuclear fertility-restorer genes. Although the molecular basis of CMS is well established in a number of crop systems, our understanding of it in natural populations is far more limited. To identify CMS genes in a gynodioecious plant, Silene vulgaris, we constructed mt transcriptomes and compared transcript levels and RNA editing patterns in floral bud tissue from female and hermaphrodite full siblings. The transcriptomes from female and hermaphrodite individuals were very similar overall with respect to variation in levels of transcript abundance across the genome, the extent of RNA editing, and the order in which RNA editing and intron splicing events occurred. We found only a single genomic region that was highly overexpressed and differentially edited in females relative to hermaphrodites. This region is not located near any other transcribed elements and lacks an open-reading frame (ORF) of even moderate size. To our knowledge, this transcript would represent the first non-coding mt RNA associated with CMS in plants and is, therefore, an important target for future functional validation studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims: The uptake and tolerance of antimonite [Sb(III)] and antimonate [Sb(V)] were investigated in two populations of Achillea wilhelmsii, one from strongly Sb-enriched mine soil, the other from uncontaminated soil, in comparison with non-metallicolous Silene vulgaris and Thlaspi arvense. Methods: Tolerance was assessed from root elongation and biomass accumulation after exposure to a series of concentrations of Sb(III) or Sb(V) in hydroponics. Results: For all the species Sb(III) was more toxic than Sb(V). S. vulgaris was the most Sb(III)-tolerant species, and A. wilhelmsii the most Sb(V)-tolerant one. There were no considerable interspecific differences regarding the root and shoot Sb concentrations. Sb(III) and Sb(V) tolerance and accumulation were not different between the metallicolous and the non-metallicolous A. wilhelmsii populations. Sb(III) uptake was partly inhibited by silicon. Sb(V) uptake was strongly inhibited by chloride. Conclusions: There is uncorrelated variation among species in Sb(V) and Sb(III) tolerance, showing that plants sequester Sb(V) and Sb(III) in different ways. Sb(V) seems to be taken up via monovalent anion channels, and Sb(III) via silicon transporters, at least in part. The relatively high Sb(V) tolerance in A. wilhelmsii seems to be a species-wide property, rather than a product of local adaptation to Sb-enriched soil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work aims to investigate the nature and the specific mechanisms by which polycarboxylic compounds participate in the tolerance of Silene vulgaris to Cr with special attention given to the rhizosphere system. This knowledge is important to use this species in the implementation of phytoremediation technologies in Cr-polluted soils. According to the results, chromium is chelated and mobilized by the citric and malic acids in plant tissues, while oxalic acid might participate in the reduction and chelation of Cr in the rhizosphere. At the applied doses, the response of both exudation rate and root exudate composition (total polyphenols and quercitin) seems to involve a rearrangement in the lignification of the plant cell wall to immobilize Cr. Quercetin-3-dirhamnosyl-galactoside and apiin (apigenin-7-O-apiosyl-glucoside) have been identified as the major polyphenols in the root exudates of S. vulgaris. The increments found in the apiin concentration in root exudates seem to be related to the protection against Cr toxicity by chelation of Cr or by free radical scavenging. Though earlier response is detected in plant tissues, results from this work together with previous studies in S. vulgaris indicate that exudation might be a regulated mechanism of protection under Cr exposition in S. vulgaris that may involve mainly Cr reduction and chelation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the experimental work was to improve some selected growth parameters of two ecotypes of Silene vulgaris by photostimulation of seeds using a semiconductor laser. The focus of the experimental studies was Silene vulgaris coming from the area contaminated with heavy metals - ecotype "Wiry" growing on the serpentine waste dump in the village of Wirki and ecotype "Gajków" which was collected from the area low in heavy metals. Laser light has siginificantly improved the dynamics, energy and germination of the seeds. However, better results of laser bio-stimulation were observed in the ecotype Wiry coming from the area contaminated with heavy metals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

PREMISE OF STUDY: Environmental heterogeneity over a species range can lead to divergent selection among populations, leading to phenotypic differences. The plant flavonoid pathway controls key reproductive and defense-related traits and responds to selection and environmental stressors, allowing for hypotheses about phenotypic divergence across environmental gradients. We hypothesized that with increasing elevation, more flavonoids would be produced as a response to increased UV radiation and that plants would be better defended against herbivores. METHODS: We measured floral color, flavonoids, and herbivory in natural populations of Silene vulgaris (Caryophyllaceae) along elevational transects in the French Alps. We correlated phenotypes with environmental variables and calculated genotypic divergence (FST) to compare with phenotypic divergence (PST). KEY RESULTS: We found significant phenotypic variation in 5. vulgaris along elevational gradients. Strong positive correlations were observed between floral color, leaf non-anthocyanidin flavonoid concentration, and elevation. Floral anthocyanin and leaf non-anthocyanidin flavonoid phenotypes negatively covaried with temperature and precipitation seasonality. Comparisons of PST to FST provided evidence for stabilizing selection on floral color among transects and divergent selection along the elevational gradient. CONCLUSIONS: Flavonoid production increases along elevational gradients in S. vulgaris, with clinal variation in calyx anthocyanins and increasing leaf non-anthocyanin flavonoid concentrations. Despite the photoprotective and antiherbivore properties of some flavonoids, flavonoid production in flowers and leaves was correlated with population microclimatic variables: temperature and precipitation. Taken together, the results suggest that different flavonoid groups are targeted by selection in different tissues and provide evidence for divergent patterns of selection for flavonoids between high and low elevations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the last glacial maximum ( LGM), many plant and animal taxa have expanded their ranges by migration from glacial refugia. Weeds of cultivation may have followed this trend or spread globally following the expansion of agriculture or ruderal habitats associated with human-mediated disturbance. We tested whether the range expansion of the weed Silene vulgaris across Europe fit the classical model of postglacial expansion from southern refugia, or followed known routes of the expansion of human agricultural practices. We used species distribution modeling to predict spatial patterns of postglacial expansion and contrasted these with the patterns of human agricultural expansion. A population genetic analysis using microsatellite loci was then used to test which scenario was better supported by spatial patterns of genetic diversity and structure. Genetic diversity was highest in southern Europe and declined with increasing latitude. Locations of ancestral demes from genetic cluster analysis were consistent with areas of predicted refugia. Species distribution models showed the most suitable habitat in the LGM on the southern coasts of Europe. These results support the typical postglacial northward colonization from southern refugia while refuting the east-to-west agricultural spread as the main mode of expansion for S. vulgaris. We know that S. vulgaris has recently colonized many regions (including North America and other continents) through human-mediated dispersal, but there is no evidence for a direct link between the Neolithic expansion of agriculture and current patterns of genetic diversity of S. vulgaris in Europe. Therefore, the history of range expansion of S. vulgaris likely began with postglacial expansion after the LGM, followed by more recent global dispersal by humans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Inbreeding depression (ID) is generally assumed to increase under stressful conditions, but a number of studies have found the opposite pattern, that is that crossed offspring were more capable of exploiting benign conditions. Alternatively, the phenotypic variation hypothesis predicts that not stress intensity, but enhanced phenotypic variation in an environment leads to increased ID. We subjected inbred and crossed offspring of Silene vulgaris to drought, simulated herbivory, copper contamination, and two levels of nutrient deficiency and shade. In contrast to the predominant expectation, most stress treatments decreased inbreeding depression. With increasing nutrient limitation, ID decreased strongly, whereas under increasing shade ID did not change. These differences may be due to purging in the population of origin where conditions are nutrient-poor and dry, but not shaded. In contrast to the greenhouse experiment, ID was higher in a field site than in a more benign common garden. However, the predictions of the phenotypic variation hypothesis were met in both the greenhouse and the field versus garden experiment. The results suggest that there may be no general relationship between ID and stress intensity, but specific effects of stress type and the novelty and variability of the environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this work is to study the response ofSilene vulgaristo a range of environmentally relevant concentrations of Cr(VI) in order to evaluate its potential use in the phytomanagement of Cr polluted sites. Cuttings of six homogenous genotypes from Madrid (Spain) have been used as plant material. The eco-physiological response ofS. vulgaristo Cr(VI) changed with the genotype. The yield dose-response curve was characterized by stimulation at low doses of Cr(VI). The effects of metal concentration were quantified on root dry weight, water content and chlorophyll content, determined by SPAD index. The response was not homogeneous for all studied genotypes. At high doses of Cr(VI), plants increased micronutrient concentration in dry tissues which suggested that nutrient balance could be implicated in the alleviation of Cr toxicity. This work highlights the importance of studying the eco-physiological response of metallophytes under a range of pollutant concentrations to determine the most favorable traits to be employed in the phytomanagement process. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Social context refers to the composition of an individual's social interactants, including potential mates. In spatially structured populations, social context can vary among individuals within populations, generating the opportunity for social selection to drive differences in fitness functions among individuals at a fine spatial scale. In sexually polymorphic plants, the local sex ratio varies at a fine scale and thus has the potential to generate this opportunity. We measured the spatial distribution of two wild populations of the gynodioecious plant Silene vulgaris and show that there is fine-scale heterogeneity in the local distribution of the sexes within these populations. We demonstrate that the largest variance in sex ratio is among nearest neighbors. This variance is greatly reduced as the spatial scale of social interactions increases. These patterns suggest the sex of neighbors has the potential to generate fine-scale differences in selection differentials among individuals. One of the most important determinants of social interactions in plants is the behavior of pollinators. These results suggest that the potential for selection arising from sex ratio will be greatest when pollen is shared among nearest neighbors. Future studies incorporating the movement of pollinators may reveal whether and how this fine-scale variance in sex ratio affects the fitness of individuals in these populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Extensive green roofs are used to increase the surface area covered by vegetation in big cities, thereby reducing the urban heat-island effect, promoting CO 2 sequestration, and increasing biodiversity and urban-wildlife habitats. In Mediterranean semi-arid regions, the deficiency of water necessitates the use in these roofs of overall native plants which are more adapted to drought than other species. However, such endemic plants have been used scarcely in green roofs. For this purpose, we tested two different substrates with two depths (5 and 10 cm), in order to study their suitability with regard to adequate plant development under Mediterranean conditions. A compost-soil-bricks (CSB) (1:1:3; v:v:v) mixture and another made up of compost and bricks (CB) (1:4; v:v) were arranged in two depths (5 and 10 cm), in cultivation tables. Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke and Lagurus ovatus L. seeds were sown in each substrate. These experimental units were subjected, on the one hand, to irrigation at 40% of the registered evapotranspiration values (ET 0 ) and, on the other, to drought conditions, during a nine-month trial. Physichochemical and microbiological substrate characteristics were studied, along with the physiological and nutritional status of the plants. We obtained significantly greater plant coverage in CSB at 10 cm, especially for L. ovatus (80–90%), as well as a better physiological status, especially in S. vulgaris (SPAD values of 50–60), under irrigation, whereas neither species could grow in the absence of water. The carbon and nitrogen fixation by the substrate and the aboveground biomass were also higher in CSB at 10 cm, especially under L. ovatus – in which 1.32 kg C m −2 and 209 g N m −2 were fixed throughout the experiment. Besides, the enzymatic and biochemical parameters assayed showed that microbial activity and nutrient cycling, which fulfill a key role for plant development, were higher in CSB. Therefore, irrigation of 40% can maintain an adequate plant cover of both endemic species, particularly in a deeper and soil-containing substrate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Silene latifolia represents one of the best-studied plant sex chromosome systems. A new approach using RNA-seq data has recently identified hundreds of new sex-linked genes in this species. However, this approach is expected to miss genes that are either not expressed or are expressed at low levels in the tissue(s) used for RNA-seq. Therefore other independent approaches are needed to discover such sex-linked genes. Results: Here we used 10 well-characterized S. latifolia sex-linked genes and their homologs in Silene vulgaris, a species without sex chromosomes, to screen BAC libraries of both species. We isolated and sequenced 4 Mb of BAC clones of S. latifolia X and Y and S. vulgaris genomic regions, which yielded 59 new sex-linked genes (with S. vulgaris homologs for some of them). We assembled sequences that we believe represent the tip of the Xq arm. These sequences are clearly not pseudoautosomal, so we infer that the S. latifolia X has a single pseudoautosomal region (PAR) on the Xp arm. The estimated mean gene density in X BACs is 2.2 times lower than that in S. vulgaris BACs, agreeing with the genome size difference between these species. Gene density was estimated to be extremely low in the Y BAC clones. We compared our BAC-located genes with the sex-linked genes identified in previous RNA-seq studies, and found that about half of them (those with low expression in flower buds) were not identified as sex-linked in previous RNA-seq studies. We compiled a set of ~70 validated X/Y genes and X-hemizygous genes (without Y copies) from the literature, and used these genes to show that X-hemizygous genes have a higher probability of being undetected by the RNA-seq approach, compared with X/Y genes; we used this to estimate that about 30% of our BAC-located genes must be X-hemizygous. The estimate is similar when we use BAC-located genes that have S. vulgaris homologs, which excludes genes that were gained by the X chromosome. Conclusions: Our BAC sequencing identified 59 new sex-linked genes, and our analysis of these BAC-located genes, in combination with RNA-seq data suggests that gene losses from the S. latifolia Y chromosome could be as high as 30%, higher than previous estimates of 10-20%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reciprocal effects between arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and plant communities are essential to study the complexity of interactions in a grassland ecosystem. Here, we investigated the effects of plant community density and composition on AMF colonization, plant growth, and reproduction investment. We developed an experimental system with three compartments, each containing either three or six Medicago truncatula Gaertn. plants, or three M. truncatula plants associated with three Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke plants. All three compartments shared the same common mycorrhizal network built either by Rhizophagus irregularis MUCL 43194, by Rhizophagus clarus MUCL 46238, or by both AMF in association grown in a central compartment on Plantago lanceolata L. Our results demonstrate an absence of effect of plant density but a positive influence of mixed cultures on AMF root colonization compared with monocultures. This higher AMF development resulted in a positive feedback on shoot biomass and number of flowers and fruits produced by M. truncatula. Although both fungal strains were present in root systems, co-inoculation did not generate a synergistic effect on plant development. These results highlight the importance of plant associations on AMF dynamics, which requires further investigation at the community scale to improve our understanding of the intricate AMF - host plant relationships. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scanning electron microscopy established that gel particles of pectins obtained from cells grown in media with different carbohydrate compositions differed in size, shape, and macroscopic surface relief. Gel based on pectin from callus grown with sucrose (30 g/L) had the lowest biodegradability in artificial gastric juice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this research is to investigate the effects of the Agrobacterium rhizogenes rol genes on the composition of cell-wall polysaccharides and glycanase activity in the campion callus. The expression of the rolC gene reduces the yield of campion pectin, while the expression of the rolB or rolC gene inhibits the volumetric production of both pectin and intracellular arabinogalactan. The rol genes are involved in regulating the activity of glycanases and esterases, thereby contributing to the modification of polysaccharide structures, their molecular weight ( Mw ) and the degree of pectin methyl esterification (DE). The increase in pectin arabinose residue appears to be connected to a decrease in intracellular and extracellular α- l -arabinofuranosidase activity in transgenic campion calluses. In transgenic calluses expressing the rolB and rolC genes, the increase in pectin galactose residue is likely due to a decrease in β-galactosidase activity. The decrease in the Mw of pectin and its d -galacturonic acid content appears to be connected to an increase in extracellular polygalacturonase activity. Finally, the increase in pectinesterase activity causes a decrease in the DE of pectin. Thus, the expression of rolB and rolC genes in campion callus has a considerable effect on pectin's sugar composition, DE and Mw , while it appears to have an insignificant influence on intracellular and extracellular arabinogalactans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pectin-calcium gels obtained based on pectins of callus cultures are able to adhere to the surface of cells of Gram-positive bacteria Bacillus subtilis to various degrees and this is thanks to the structural features of pectin. Rapid adhesion of the cells to gels obtained from the pectin of Tanacetum vulgare ( TVC) callus cultures is associated with a high content of the linear region in the carbohydrate chain of pectin, a high molecular weight, and a low degree of methyl-estherification of pectin. The number of adherent cells on the surface of gels obtained from pectins of Silene vulgaris callus cultures ( SVC), TVC, and Lemna minor ( LMC) after 8 h of incubation was close, whereas the number of cells was minimal on a gel produced using the pectin of Silene tatarica ( STC) callus culture. This was due to the higher degree of methyl-estherification of STC pectin (45%) compared to other pectins (4-12%). The adhesion rate constant ( k) of B. subtilis for TCVgel during the first 120 min was the highest in comparison with other gels; the k value for SVC, STC and LMC gels was similar. The lowest level of k was characteristic for the gel from commercial apple pectin. The obtained data can be used for the production of gels with adhesive and antiadhesive properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]