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Summary: Photoreceptor degenerative diseases are a major cause of blindness for which cell replacement is one of the most encouraging strategies. For stem cell-based therapy using human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs), it is crucial to obtain a homogenous photoreceptor cell population. We confirmed that the cell surface antigen CD73 is exclusively expressed in hiPSC-derived photoreceptors by generating a fluorescent cone rod homeobox (Crx) reporter hiPSC line using CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing. We demonstrated that CD73 targeting by magnetic-activated cell sorting (MACS) is an effective strategy to separate a safe population of transplantable photoreceptors. CD73+ photoreceptor precursors can be isolated in large numbers and transplanted into rat eyes, showing capacity to survive and mature in close proximity to host inner retina of a model of photoreceptor degeneration. These data demonstrate that CD73+ photoreceptor precursors hold great promise for a future safe clinical translation. : Gagliardi and colleagues show the possibility of isolating a homogeneous and functional population of photoreceptors from human induced pluripotent stem cells by targeting of a single surface antigen, CD73. Transplanted human cells are able to be incorporated into a host retina, generating mostly cone photoreceptors. Keywords: retina, photoreceptor, organoids, cell sorting, neurodegeneration, transplantation, iPSC, cell therapy

International audience; Mutations in the tetratricopeptide repeat domain 7A (TTC7A) gene cause very early onset inflammatory bowel diseases (VOIBD) or multiple intestinal atresia associated with immune deficiency of various severities, ranging from combined immune deficiency to mild lymphopenia. In this manuscript, we report the clinical, biological and molecular features of a patient born from consanguineous parents, presenting with recurrent lymphoproliferative syndrome and pan-hypergammaglobulinemia associated with chronic intestinal pseudo obstruction (CIPO). Genetic screening revealed the novel c.974G>A (p.R325Q) mutation in homozygosity in the TTC7A gene. The patient's phenotype differs significantly from that previously associated with TTC7A deficiency in humans. It becomes closer to the one reported in the ttc7a-deficient mice that invariably develop a proliferative lymphoid and myeloid disorder. Functional studies showed that the extreme variability in the clinical phenotype couldn't be explained by the cellular phenotype. Indeed, the patient's TTC7A mutation, as well as the murine-ttc7 mutant, have the same functional impact on protein expression, DNA instability and chromatin compaction, as the other mutations that lead to classical TTC7A-associated phenotypes. Co-inheritance of genetic variants may also contribute to the unique nature of the patient's phenotype. The present case report shows that the clinical spectrum of TTC7A deficiency is much broader than previously suspected. Our findings should alert the physicians to consider screening of TTC7A mutations in patients with lymphoproliferative syndrome and hypergammaglobulinemia and/or chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction.

International audience

A loss-of-function mutation in tetratricopeptide repeat domain 7A (TTC7A) is a recently identified cause of human intestinal and immune disorders. However, clues to related underlying molecular dysfunctions remain elusive. It is now shown based on the study of TTC7A-deficient and wild-type cells that TTC7A is an essential nuclear protein. It binds to chromatin, preferentially at actively transcribed regions. Its depletion results in broad range of epigenomic changes at proximal and distal transcriptional regulatory elements and in altered control of the transcriptional program. Loss of WT_TTC7A induces general decrease in chromatin compaction, unbalanced cellular distribution of histones, higher nucleosome accessibility to nuclease digestion along with genome instability, and reduced cell viability. Our observations characterize for the first time unreported functions for TTC7A in the nucleus that exert a critical role in chromatin organization and gene regulation to safeguard healthy immune and intestinal status.

In 2012, Schaefer et al. revealed that microglia regulate the emergence of functional connectivity by engulfing and selectively eliminating synapses in the retinogeniculate system. This synaptic pruning mechanism, which is activity dependent and relies on the complement cascade, has helped define microglia as a central contributor to normal wiring and to brain disorders.

International audience

Growing evidence support the idea that impairments in Fast Axonal Transport (FAT) play a crucial role in Neurodegenerative Diseases (NDs). Huntington’s Disease is neurodegenerative disorder caused by an abnormal polyglutamine expansion in the N-Terminal part of huntingtin (HTT), a large scaffold protein implicated in transport regulation. Both the presence of the mutated HTT as the loss of HTT leads to transport defects in mammals. In the fruit fly overexpression of the mutant HTT recapitulates the phenotype observed in mammals. However, it is still unclear whether HTT’s function is conserved in D. melanogaster. Here, we show that D. melanogaster HTT (DmHTT) associates with vesicles, microtubules, and interacts with dynein. In rat cortical neurons, DmHTT partially replaces mammalian HTT in fast axonal transport, and DmHTT KO flies show axonal transport defects in vivo. These results suggest that HTT function in transport is conserved in D. melanogaster.FAT is a process that requires a constant supply of energy. Mitochondria are the main producers of ATP in the cell. However, we have demonstrated that FAT does not depend on this source of energy, as previously thought, but it depends on glycolytic ATP produced on vesicles. Perturbing GAPDH or PK, the two ATP generating glycolytic enzymes, slows down vesicular transport. However, knocking down GAPDH does not affect mitochondrial transport. Furthermore, all of the glycolytic enzymes are associated with dynamic vesicles, and are capable of producing their own ATP. Finally, we show that this ATP production is sufficient to sustain their own transport, demonstrating the energetical autonomy of vesicles for transport., De plus en plus de preuves montrent que le transport axonal rapide (FAT) joue un rôle crucial au cours des maladies neurodégénératives (NDs). La maladie de Huntington est une maladie neurodégénérative causée par une expansion anormale de polyglutamines dans la partie Nterminale de la protéine huntingtine (HTT) : une grande protéine d’échafaudage impliquée dans la régulation du transport. La présence de HTT mutante comme l’absence de la HTT induisent des défauts de transport chez les mammifères. Chez la Drosophile, la HTT mutante reproduit le phénotype observée chez les mammifères, cependant la fonction conservée de la HTT chez la Drosophile melanogaster (DmHTT) n’est pas encore clairement établie. Ici nous mettons en évidence que DmHTT s’associe aux vésicules, aux microtubules et intéragit avec la proteine dynéine. Dans les neurones corticaux de rat, DmHTT remplace partiellement la HTT de mammifère dans le transport axonal rapide, et les drosophiles invalidées pour la HTT montrent des défauts de transport axonal in vivo. Ces résultats suggèrent que la fonction de la HTT est conservée dans le modèle Drosophile.Le FAT est un processus qui requiert un apport constant d’énergie. Les mitochondries sont les principales sources de production d’ATP de la cellule. Cependant nous avons démontré que le FAT ne dépend non pas de cette source d’énergie là, contrairement à ce que l’on pensait, mais de l’ATP glycolytique produit par les vésicules. La dérégulation de GAPDH ou de PK, les deux enzymes glycolytiques productrices d’ATP, ralentit le transport vésiculaire. Néanmoins, l’invalidation de GAPDH n’affecte pas le transport mitochondrial. En outre, toutes les enzymes glycolytiques sont associées à des vésicules dynamiques et sont capables de produire leur propre ATP. Enfin nous montrons que l’ATP produit est suffisant pour assurer leur propre transport, prouvant l’autonomie énergétique des vésicules pour le transport.

The posttranslational modification of tubulin plays an important role in regulating microtubule function. Enzymes responsible for deglutamylating tubulin are members of a family of cytosolic carboxypeptidases. By completing the functional characterization of this protein family in mammals, it is demonstrated that CCP2 and CCP3 are deglutamylases., The posttranslational modification of carboxy-terminal tails of tubulin plays an important role in the regulation of the microtubule cytoskeleton. Enzymes responsible for deglutamylating tubulin have been discovered within a novel family of mammalian cytosolic carboxypeptidases. The discovery of these enzymes also revealed the existence of a range of other substrates that are enzymatically deglutamylated. Only four of six mammalian cytosolic carboxypeptidases had been enzymatically characterized. Here we complete the functional characterization of this protein family by demonstrating that CCP2 and CCP3 are deglutamylases, with CCP3 being able to hydrolyze aspartic acids with similar efficiency. Deaspartylation is a novel posttranslational modification that could, in conjunction with deglutamylation, broaden the range of potential substrates that undergo carboxy-terminal processing. In addition, we show that CCP2 and CCP3 are highly regulated proteins confined to ciliated tissues. The characterization of two novel enzymes for carboxy-terminal protein modification provides novel insights into the broadness of this barely studied process.

Huntingtin (HTT) is a scaffold protein involved in numerous cellular mechanisms essentials for appropriate physiological functions. HTT is encoded by HTT gene which carries a polymorphic repetition of CAG triplet. When the CAG repetition exceeds 35, it leads to Huntington’s disease, a hereditary severe neurodegenerative disorder. While HTT expression is ubiquitous, it is mainly studied in nervous system. For example, HTT roles in breast physiology and cancer are unknown. We demonstrated that mutant HTT accelerates breast tumor and metastasis development and that wild-Type HTT is involved in normal mammary gland development. My main project was to characterize the roles of HTT and of its phosphorylation at S421 (S421-P-HTT) and that of the polymorphic CAG length in mammary carcinomas.First, leaning on cellular and murine models as well as on expression studies in breast cancer patients, I observed that HTT and S421-P-HTT expression correlates with tumoral differentiation stage. At the molecular level, HTT regulates through its phosphorylation at S421, the expression and localization of ZO1, a marker of intercellular junction and therefore modulates intercellular adhesion. ZO1 colocalizes with S421-P-HTT specifically at tight junctions and forms a complex with HTT. Loss of HTT is itself pro-Metastatic in mice and is decreased in metastatic human breast cancer. Moreover, HTT and ZO1 are concomitantly downregulated in low-Grade human carcinomas.On the other hand, the polymorphism of CAG repetitions in HTT has a dual-Purpose: while long repetitions protect against cancer development, it increases its severity once cancer is developed. In HER2 subtype specifically, HTT appears as an independent prognostic factor of metastasis development.Thus, these studies point out a key function of HTT outside the brain during mammary carcinoma progression and should lead to a better understanding of molecular mechanisms involved in metastasis development., La huntingtine (HTT) est une protéine d’échafaudage participant à des fonctions indispensables au bon fonctionnement cellulaire. Elle est codée par le gène HTT qui présente une répétition polymorphique de triplet CAG. Une répétition excédant 35 CAG dans la HTT est à l’origine de la maladie de Huntington, une maladie neurodégénérative héréditaire sévère. Ainsi, bien que d’expression ubiquitaire, la HTT est principalement étudiée dans le système nerveux. Par exemple, ses implications dans le tissu mammaire, en condition normale et pathologique, sont inconnues. Nous avons observé que la forme mutante de la HTT accélère le développement de cancer du sein et en accentue la sévérité et que la forme sauvage est impliquée dans le développement normal de la glande mammaire. Mon projet principal de thèse était de caractériser le rôle de la HTT, de sa phosphorylation à la sérine 421 (S421-P-HTT) ainsi que du polymorphisme des répétitions CAG dans les cancers du sein.En utilisant des modèles cellulaires et murins et par des études d’expression chez des patientes atteintes d’un cancer du sein, j’ai observé que l’expression de la HTT et de la S421-P-HTT corrèlent avec le stade de différenciation tumorale. Au niveau moléculaire, la HTT régule, par sa phosphorylation à la S421, l’expression et la localisation d’une des protéines des jonctions serrées, ZO1 et module ainsi l’adhésion intercellulaire. ZO1 colocalise avec la S421-P-HTT aux jonctions intercellulaires et forme un complexe avec la HTT. La perte d’expression de HTT est pro-Métastatique chez la souris et est moindre dans les cancers du sein métastatiques. De plus, les niveaux d’expression de HTT et de ZO1 sont diminués en parallèle dans les carcinomes humains de bas grades.J’ai également montré que le polymorphisme CAG présent dans la HTT sauvage joue un « double emploi » : tandis que de longues répétitions protègent de l’apparition de cancers, elles accentuent sa sévérité lorsque la maladie se développe. Dans le sous-Type HER2 spécifiquement, la longueur de la répétition CAG est un facteur pronostic indépendant du développement de métastases.Ainsi, ces travaux ont permis de mettre en évidence un rôle clé pour la HTT au cours de la progression tumorale mammaire, et devraient conduire à une meilleure compréhension des mécanismes moléculaires impliqués dans le développement de métastases dans le cancer du sein.

Huntington disease (HD) is an autosomal dominant neurodegenerative disorder caused by an abnormal CAG expansion in the huntingtin (HTT) gene. The corresponding polyglutamine expansion in the HTT protein causes specific neuronal death, but the consequences of HTT mutation in other tissues are less well understood. Nevertheless, HD mutation causes peripheral symptoms as HTT is an ubiquitous protein. HD was associated to lower cancer incidence, however, the mechanisms behind this effect were not described. Here we have studied the role of wild-type and mutant HTT in breast cancer, where we found the protein to be highly expressed. We demonstrate that mouse breast cancer models (MMTV-PyVT and MMTV-ErbB2) expressing mutant HTT (knock-in mice carrying 111 CAGs) develop aggressive mammary tumors as compared to control mice. Epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition is enhanced with subsequent increased cell motility and metastasis. These tumors accumulate tyrosine-kinase receptor HER2 at the membrane, due to a dynamin-dependent endocytosis defect in the presence of mutant HTT. HER2 enhanced signaling is responsible for the aggressiveness of the mutant HTT expressing tumors, as demonstrated by Trastuzumab treatment, an antibody against HER2 that restores motility and invasion in tumor cells carrying HD mutation. The wild-type HTT has itself a protective role in cancer, inhibiting metastasis due to a possible role in cellular junction maintenance. Thus, our work unravels a key role of HTT in breast cancer progression, with the mutant HTT triggering the development of aggressive and metastatic tumors., La maladie de Huntington (MH) est une maladie neurodégénérative autosomale dominante causée par une expansion anormale de CAG dans le gène codant la huntingtine (HTT) qui se traduit dans la protéine HTT par une répétition de polyglutamine, entrainant la mort neuronale. Néanmoins, la MH entraine aussi le développement de symptômes périphériques comme la HTT est une protéine exprimée de façon ubiquitaire. Notamment, la MH a été associé à une plus faible incidence des cancers, mais les mécanismes sous-jacents ne sont pas décrits. Nous avons étudié le rôle de HTT mutée et sauvage dans le cancer du sein, où la protéine est fortement exprimée. Des modèles murins de cancer du sein (MMTV-PyVT et MMTV-ErbB2) exprimant la HTT mutée (souris knock-in transportant 111 GAC) développent des tumeurs mammaires agressives par rapport aux souris exprimant la HTT sauvage. La transition épithéliale-mésenchymateuse est accélérée avec une augmentation de la motilité cellulaire ainsi que de la formation de métastases. Ces tumeurs accumulent le récepteur tyrosine-kinase HER2 à la membrane, en raison d'un défaut d'endocytose dynamine-dépendante en présence de la HTT mutée. La signalisation accrue de HER2 est responsable de l'agressivité des tumeurs exprimant la HTT mutée, comme en témoigne le traitement trastuzumab, un anticorps dirigé contre HER2 qui restaure la motilité et l'invasion des cellules tumorales porteuses de la mutation responsable de la MH. La HTT sauvage a elle-même un rôle protecteur dans le cancer, retardant l’apparition des métastases en raison d'un potentiel rôle dans l’adhésion intercellulaire. Ainsi, notre travail met en évidence des rôles clés de la HTT mutée et sauvage au cours de la progression du cancer du sein.

Huntington disease (HD) is an autosomal dominant neurodegenerative disorder caused by an abnormal CAG expansion in the huntingtin (HTT) gene. The corresponding polyglutamine expansion in the HTT protein causes specific neuronal death, but the consequences of HTT mutation in other tissues are less well understood. Nevertheless, HD mutation causes peripheral symptoms as HTT is an ubiquitous protein. HD was associated to lower cancer incidence, however, the mechanisms behind this effect were not described. Here we have studied the role of wild-type and mutant HTT in breast cancer, where we found the protein to be highly expressed. We demonstrate that mouse breast cancer models (MMTV-PyVT and MMTV-ErbB2) expressing mutant HTT (knock-in mice carrying 111 CAGs) develop aggressive mammary tumors as compared to control mice. Epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition is enhanced with subsequent increased cell motility and metastasis. These tumors accumulate tyrosine-kinase receptor HER2 at the membrane, due to a dynamin-dependent endocytosis defect in the presence of mutant HTT. HER2 enhanced signaling is responsible for the aggressiveness of the mutant HTT expressing tumors, as demonstrated by Trastuzumab treatment, an antibody against HER2 that restores motility and invasion in tumor cells carrying HD mutation. The wild-type HTT has itself a protective role in cancer, inhibiting metastasis due to a possible role in cellular junction maintenance. Thus, our work unravels a key role of HTT in breast cancer progression, with the mutant HTT triggering the development of aggressive and metastatic tumors., La maladie de Huntington (MH) est une maladie neurodégénérative autosomale dominante causée par une expansion anormale de CAG dans le gène codant la huntingtine (HTT) qui se traduit dans la protéine HTT par une répétition de polyglutamine, entrainant la mort neuronale. Néanmoins, la MH entraine aussi le développement de symptômes périphériques comme la HTT est une protéine exprimée de façon ubiquitaire. Notamment, la MH a été associé à une plus faible incidence des cancers, mais les mécanismes sous-jacents ne sont pas décrits. Nous avons étudié le rôle de HTT mutée et sauvage dans le cancer du sein, où la protéine est fortement exprimée. Des modèles murins de cancer du sein (MMTV-PyVT et MMTV-ErbB2) exprimant la HTT mutée (souris knock-in transportant 111 GAC) développent des tumeurs mammaires agressives par rapport aux souris exprimant la HTT sauvage. La transition épithéliale-mésenchymateuse est accélérée avec une augmentation de la motilité cellulaire ainsi que de la formation de métastases. Ces tumeurs accumulent le récepteur tyrosine-kinase HER2 à la membrane, en raison d'un défaut d'endocytose dynamine-dépendante en présence de la HTT mutée. La signalisation accrue de HER2 est responsable de l'agressivité des tumeurs exprimant la HTT mutée, comme en témoigne le traitement trastuzumab, un anticorps dirigé contre HER2 qui restaure la motilité et l'invasion des cellules tumorales porteuses de la mutation responsable de la MH. La HTT sauvage a elle-même un rôle protecteur dans le cancer, retardant l’apparition des métastases en raison d'un potentiel rôle dans l’adhésion intercellulaire. Ainsi, notre travail met en évidence des rôles clés de la HTT mutée et sauvage au cours de la progression du cancer du sein.

Huntington’s disease (HD) is an autosomal dominant inherited neurodegenerative disorder caused by an abnormal polyglutamine (polyQ) expansion in the N-terminus of the protein huntingtin (HTT). A crucial step in HD pathogenesis is the cleavage of full-length HTT into smaller N-terminal (N-ter) fragments that contain the polyQ stretch and that are toxic to neurons. HTT cleavage generates short N-ter fragments whose amino-acid positions range from 1-105 to 1-586. These fragments are observed in HD post mortem brain samples and their participation in neuronal death in HD is well characterized. During my PhD research, I investigated the consequences of full-length mutant HTT proteolysis by developing a time and site-specific controlled system for HTT proteolysis. I have assessed HTT cleavage on two sites caspase-6 and cathepsin Z. My results show that HTT cleavage induces neurotoxicity in vitro as well as in vivo, toxicity which depends on HTT proteolysis pattern. Briefly, we described an intramolecular interaction within the HTT domains which is impaired upon successive proteolysis of HTT. We found that HTT intramolecular interaction buffer mutant N-ter HTT-induced toxicity. Moreover, specific cleavages of the mutant HTT generated toxic N-ter fragments as they translocate into the nucleus. To conclude, my PhD work has shown that additional cleavage of mutant HTT induces cytotoxicity by different mechanisms., La maladie de Huntington (MH) est une maladie neurodégénérative héréditaire autosomique dominante. Elle est due à l’expansion anormale de polyglutamine dans la partie N-terminal de la protéine huntingtine (HTT). Une des étapes clés de la pathologie est le clivage de la HTT pleine longueur en fragments N-terminaux plus petits, contenant l’expansion de polyglutamine, et qui sont toxiques pour les neurones. En effet, les clivages de la HTT mutée génère des fragments N-terminaux (N-ter) de tailles comprises entre les acides aminés 1-105 et 1-586 observés dans des extraits de cerveaux de patients MH post-mortem et dont l’implication dans la mort neuronal est bien caractérisée. Mes travaux de thèse ont visé à modéliser le clivage de la HTT et à évaluer les conséquences sur la survie neuronale.Au cours de ma thèse, j’ai développé un outil permettant de contrôler le clivage de la HTT dans le temps et à des sites spécifiques. J’ai étudié le clivage de la HTT à deux sites stratégiques : les positions clivées par la caspase-6 et par la bléomycine hydrolase/cathepsine Z. A l’aide de cet outil, j’ai montré que le clivage de la HTT confère une toxicité cellulaire qui dépend du profil du clivage. Plus précisément, J’ai décrit une interaction intramoléculaire au sein des domaines de la HTT. Mes résultats indiquent que cette interaction protège les cellules de la toxicité induite par le clivage de la HTT mutée. En effet, les clivages successifs de la HTT annulent cette interaction, ce qui induit la libération des fragments N-ter mutants et provoque la mort cellulaire à l’issue de leur translocation nucléaire. Pour conclure, au cours de ma thèse, j’ai montré que la protéolyse successive de la HTT induit des processus cytotoxiques différents.

International audience; BACKGROUND: The tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-family members B cell activating factor (BAFF) and A PRoliferation-Inducing Ligand (APRIL) play important roles in B cell biology, and share binding to B cell maturation antigen and transmembrane activator and cyclophilin ligand interactor, both receptors of the TNF-family. However, while it is reported that BAFF can break B cell tolerance, the role of APRIL in autoimmunity remains elusive. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the role of APRIL on collagen-induced arthritis (CIA). METHODS: CIA was induced in APRIL-transgenic (Tg) DBA/1 mice and littermates. Disease progression was evaluated by clinical and histological signs of arthritis. In another experimental setting mice were exposed to the collagen antibody-induced arthritis. In addition, we tested T cell dependent humoral responses in APRIL-Tg mice. RESULTS: We found that APRIL-Tg displayed a strongly reduced incidence and severity of CIA compared with littermates, with decreases in collagen-specific autoantibody titres, immune complex deposition and downstream mast cell activation in joints. Notably, ectopic APRIL-expression was also found to negatively regulate T cell dependent humoral responses. The lower autoantibody production in APRIL-Tg mice during CIA appears to be crucial, as arthritis induced by administration of anti-collagen antibodies developed similar in APRIL-Tg and control mice, thus demonstrating that the downstream effector pathways induced by anti-collagen antibodies remain intact in APRIL-Tg mice. This protective effect was specifically mediated by APRIL, as adenoviral delivery of APRIL decreased CIA in a therapeutic setting. CONCLUSIONS: Collectively, our data identify APRIL as a negative regulator of CIA by regulating autoantibody production. These findings are of important clinical relevance, as the therapeutic potential of transmembrane activator and cyclophilin ligand interactor-Fc (atacicept) is presently evaluated in clinical trials.

Huntington disease (HD) is a fatal neurodegenerative disorder associated with early psychiatric symptoms including anxiety and depression.During my thesis, I have demonstrated that huntingtin, the protein mutated in HD, modulates anxiety/depression-related behaviors through its phosphorylations at serines 1181 and 1201. Indeed, genetic phospho-ablation at serines 1181 and 1201 in mouse reduces basal levels of anxiety/depression-like behaviors in mouse. Suppression of neurogenesis by focal hippocampal irradiation abolishes this reduction of basal levels of anxiety/depression on some behavioral test demonstrating that neurogenesis is involved in this process. Ablation of HTT phosphorylations may stimulate neurogenesis through BDNF transport, release and signaling.I have also shown that ablation of phosphorylations on HTT is sufficient to ameliorate the anxiety/depression-like behavior of a mouse model of HD, which develops a behavior indicative of depression–like state.I have finally explored the role of HTT phosphorylation at serines 1181 and 1201 during brain development. During early steps of cortical neurogenesis, I have shown that ablation of HTT phosphorylations affects the mitosis of cortical progenitors, the fate of newly generated cells and the migration of new neurons.The results obtained during my thesis support the notion that HTT regulates key molecular mechanisms during neurogenesis both in adult and embryo. It also supports the notion that huntingtin participates to anxiety and depression-like behavior with potential consequences for the etiology of mood disorders and anxiety/depression in HD., La mutation à l’origine de la maladie de Huntington (MH) correspond à une expansion anormale de glutamines sur la protéine huntingtine (HTT). La MH est caractérisée par des symptômes moteurs et cognitifs mais également des troubles psychiatriques tels que l’anxiété et la dépression.Au cours de ma thèse, j’ai montré que la HTT module le statut anxio-dépressif de la souris via ses phosphorylations aux sérines 1181/1201. En effet, l’ablation des phosphorylations sur la HTT endogène améliore significativement le phénotype anxio-dépressif de la souris. Chez la souris, cette modulation dépend d’une augmentation de la maturation et de la survie des nouveaux neurones dans l’hippocampe. En effet, l’irradiation focale de l’hippocampe, dans un contexte où les phosphorylations sont absentes, supprime la neurogenèse et la réduction du statut anxio-dépressif observée en l’absence de phosphorylations. Au niveau moléculaire, la HTT non phosphorylée accroît l’association des moteurs moléculaires et des vésicules de BDNF sur les microtubules, ce qui augmente les dynamiques et la libération du BDNF. Ceci active la voie de signalisation MAPK/CREB dans l’hippocampe, cette voie pouvant ainsi stimuler la neurogenèse.J’ai ensuite étudié le rôle de ces phosphorylations dans un contexte MH et j’ai démontré l’effet anxiolytique/antidépresseur de l’absence de ces phosphorylations.J’ai également montré le rôle de ces phosphorylations de la HTT au cours du développement du cortex embryonnaire.Les résultats obtenus au cours de ma thèse suggèrent que les mécanismes fondamentaux de neurogenèse sont régulés par la HTT et ses phosphorylations. De plus, ils identifient une nouvelle voie de modulation de l’anxiété/dépression faisant intervenir la HTT.

Huntington disease (HD) is an autosomal-dominant neurodegenerative disorder caused by the pathogenic expansion of the poly-glutamine (polyQ) N-terminal stretch in the huntingtin protein (HTT; encoded by HTT). HD is characterized by the dysfunction and death of neurons in the brain, leading to devastating cognitive, psychiatric, and motor symptoms in patients. Studies in multiple cell and animal model systems support the notion that polyQ expansion in mutant HTT leads to the gain of new toxic functions and loss of the neuroprotective functions of the wild-type HTT. During my thesis, I focused on the description and functional validation of a new tool to study HTT: pARIS-htt. pARIS-htt is a synthetic gene built to facilitate cloning and tagging of full-length HTT. Using different cellular approaches, we showed that pARIS-htt can replace endogenous HTT in the transport of Golgi and brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) containing vesicles. pARIS-htt mutant version could not restore vesicular transport when endogenous HTT was knocked-down. Moreover, we generated pARIS-htt deletion mutants for HTT interaction domain with dynein, a minus-end directed motor protein, and huntingtin associated protein 1 (HAP1), a HTT interactor. Both deletion mutants failed to restore vesicular transport in gene replacement assays. Another aspect of my thesis was the study of HTT during mitosis. We showed that HTT monitors spindle orientation though its interaction with diverse proteins involved in cell division. This function is lost when HTT is mutated and can be reverted by Akt phosphorylation at serine 421. The control of spindle orientation is particularly important during neurogenesis since spindle orientation and the mode of division of apical progenitors are implicated in the determination of cell fate. This function of HTT is conserved in D. melanogaster. This study contributes to the understanding of HTT functions and suggests new therapeutical approaches to treat HD., La maladie de Huntington (MH) est une maladie neurodégénérative héréditaire autosomique dominante. Elle résulte d’une expansion anormale de glutamines (polyQ) dans la partie N-terminale de la protéine huntingtine (HTT ; codé par HTT). La MH est caractérisée par la dysfonction et la mort de cellules neuronales dans le cerveau, entraînant l’apparition de symptômes cognitifs, psychiatriques et moteurs, dévastateurs chez les patients. De nombreuses études sur des modèles animaux et cellulaires montrent que l’expansion polyQ dans la protéine mutante conduit à un gain de nouvelles fonctions toxiques, ainsi qu’à la perte de fonctions neuroprotectives de la protéine sauvage. Pendant ma thèse, je me suis intéressée à la description et à la validation fonctionnelle d’un nouvel outil pour étudier la HTT : pARIS-htt. pARIS-htt est un gène synthétique construit pour faciliter le clonage et le marquage de la protéine HTT totale. En utilisant différentes approches cellulaires, nous avons montré que pARIS-htt peut remplacer le rôle de la HTT endogène dans le transport de vésicules du Golgi ainsi que du brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). La version mutante de pARIS-htt ne peut pas restaurer cette fonction. Parallèlement, nous avons généré deux variants de pARIS-htt avec soit une délétion dans la région d’interaction de la HTT avec la dynéine, moteur moléculaire se dirigeant vers l'extrémité négative des microtubules, soit avec la huntingtin associated protein 1 (HAP1), l’un de ses interacteurs. Dans les expériences de remplacement du gène, aucun des deux mutants n’a restauré le transport vésiculaire.Un autre aspect de ma thèse a été d’étudier le rôle de la HTT au cours de la mitose. Nous avons mis en évidence l’importance de la HTT dans le contrôle de l’orientation du fuseau. Cette fonction est perdue lorque la HTT est mutée, mais restaurée lorsque celle-ci est phosphorylée par Akt à la sérine 421. Le contrôle de l’orientation du fuseau est particulièrement important durant la neurogénèse puisque cette orientation ainsi que le mode de division sont impliqués dans la détermination des devenirs cellulaires. Cette fonction de la HTT est conservée chez la D. melanogaster.Cette étude a donc permis de mieux comprendre les fonctions de la HTT, et de proposer de nouvelles cibles thérapeutiques pour traiter la MH.

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Posttranslational glutamylation of tubulin is present on selected subsets of microtubules in cells. Although the modification is expected to contribute to the spatial and temporal organization of the cytoskeleton, hardly anything is known about its functional relevance. Here we demonstrate that glutamylation, and in particular the generation of long glutamate side chains, promotes the severing of microtubules. In human cells, the generation of long side chains induces spastin-dependent microtubule disassembly and, consistently, only microtubules modified by long glutamate side chains are efficiently severed by spastin in vitro. Our study reveals a novel control mechanism for microtubule mass and stability, which is of fundamental importance to cellular physiology and might have implications for diseases related to microtubule severing., The Journal of Cell Biology, 189 (6), ISSN:0021-9525, ISSN:1540-8140

BACKGROUND Huntingtin (HTT) is mutated in Huntington's disease but is ubiquitously expressed, and mutant HTT influences cancer progression. We investigated wild-type HTT function during breast cancer. METHODS We analyzed HTT and ZO1 expression as well as the HTT phosphoserine 421-activated form (S421-P-HTT) in human breast cancer tissues by quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and immunohistochemistry. We performed in vitro migration and invasion assays as well as in vivo tail vein injections of the metastatic 4T1 cells in BALB/c mice (n = 11 per group). We analyzed tumor progression in knock-in mice with modified S421 crossed with the MMTV-PyVT mammary cancer model (at least n = 12 per group). Data were analyzed with unpaired t tests, analysis of variance, Pearson or Spearman correlation, and Mann Whitney or Kruskal-Wallis tests. All statistical tests were two-sided. RESULTS Levels of HTT and of S421-P-HTT are abnormally low in poorly differentiated and metastatic human breast cancers. HTT expression is downregulated in invasive compared with in situ carcinoma (P < .001). In BALB/c mice, silencing of HTT promotes lung colonization by a metastatic mammary cancer cell line (P = .005) and S421-unphosphorylatable-HTT accelerates cancer progression. HTT interacts with ZO1 and regulates both its expression and its localization to tight junctions. In human breast tumors, the patterns of HTT and ZO1 expression are similar (Pearson correlation coefficient = 0.66, P < .001). CONCLUSIONS HTT may inhibit breast tumor dissemination through maintenance of ZO1 at tight junctions. Downregulation of HTT transcript and protein levels is a prognostic factor for poor prognosis and metastasis development.