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A simple and rapid detection of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leakage would benefit spine surgeons making critical postoperative decisions on patient care. We have assessed novel approaches to selectively determine CSF β2-transferrin (β2TF), an asialo-transferrin (aTF) biomarker, without interference from serum sialo-transferrin (sTF) in test samples. First, we performed mild periodate oxidation to selectively generate aldehyde groups in sTF for capture with magnetic hydrazide microparticles, and selective removal with a magnetic separator. Using this protocol sTF was selectively removed from mixtures of CSF and serum containing CSF aTF (β2TF) and serum sTF, respectively. Second, a two-step enzymatic method was developed with neuraminidase and galactose oxidase for generating aldehyde groups in sTF present in CSF and serum mixtures for magnetic hydrazide microparticle capture. After selectively removing sTF from mixtures of CSF and serum, ELISA could detect significant TF signal only in CSF, while the TF signal in serum was negligible. The new approach for selective removal of only sTF in test samples will be promising for the required intervention by a spine surgeon., (© 2015 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.)

Osteopontin, a cancer metastasis-associated gene, is specifically up-regulated in central nervous system (CNS) atypical teratoid/rhabdoid tumor (AT/RT), but its biological behavior in the progression of CNS AT/RT has never been studied. We obtained plasma, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and brain tissue specimens from lobectomy or hemispherectomy samples from 39 patients (medulloblastoma, 16; AT/RT, 8; epilepsy, 6; hydrocephalus, 9). By enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, the median osteopontin levels in plasma and CSF in AT/RT (852.0 and 1,175.0 ng/mL, respectively) were significantly higher than in medulloblastoma (492.5 and 524.5 ng/mL, respectively) and hydrocephalus and epilepsy (208.0 and 168.0 ng/mL, respectively) (P < .05). The results of real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction and immunohistochemical analysis demonstrated that osteopontin expression in AT/RT (n = 5) was significantly higher than in medulloblastoma (n = 8) samples. The differences in osteopontin expression in plasma, CSF, and tumor samples in AT/RT and medulloblastoma correlated with survival differences. In 5 patients with AT/RT, plasma osteopontin levels decreased after treatment but increased with relapse. Osteopontin might be a potential marker to aid in identifying AT/RT recurrence.

Purpose: Pro- and antiinflammatory cytokines regulate the febrile response during infection. Febrile seizures (FSs) conversely are associated with rapid onset of high fever. Activation of the cytokine network has been shown in previous studies of FSs and cytokines. In this study, the association between cytokines and FSs was further investigated., Methods: Interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta), interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-10, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha plasma levels were measured with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in 55 children with FSs and in 20 age-matched febrile controls immediately on arrival at the hospital. Cerebrospinal fluid cytokine levels also were measured in 16 FS children., Results: The plasma IL-1RA/IL-1beta ratio (mean, 2,133 vs. 119; median, 790 vs. 105; p < 0.0001) and plasma IL-6 (mean, 41.7 pg/ml vs. 16.1 pg/ml; median, 19.6 pg/ml vs. 10.5 pg/ml; p = 0.005) were significantly higher in FS patients compared with control children. Logistic regression analysis was used to find the most significant predisposing factors for FSs. In this analysis, the high plasma IL-1RA/IL-1beta ratio was the most significant factor connected to FSs (OR, 41.5; 95% CI, 4.9-352.8), but high plasma IL-6 also was significantly associated with FSs (OR, 5.3; 95% CI, 1.4-20.3)., Conclusions: Present results support the hypothesis that the cytokine network is activated and could have a role in the pathogenesis of FS.

A growing body of evidence points out the potential role of inflammatory mechanisms in the pathophysiology of brain damage in dementia. In previous studies, we have demonstrated intrathecal production of the proinflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor (TNF)alpha in patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD). The aim of the present study was to investigate the downstream products of TNF-alpha expression including interleukin (IL)1beta and its naturally occurring antagonist IL-1 receptor agonist (ra) in patients with AD. The cytokine levels were related to neuronal damage, as measured by intrathecal tau and beta-amyloid concentration and certain clinical features of the disease. Fifty-two patients with AD and 25 healthy controls were analyzed with respect to cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) levels of IL-1beta and IL-1ra. CSF IL-1beta was neither detectable in CSF of AD nor in control CSF. In contrast, a significantly lower (p < 0.01) number of patients (24 of 49) than of controls (20 of 24) showed detectable levels of IL-1ra in the CSF. The intrathecal levels of IL-1ra were significantly lower in patients with AD than in the controls. Our study demonstrates a decreased production of the anti-inflammatory compound IL-1ra, suggesting a propensity towards inflammation in patients with AD., (Copyright 2001 S. Karger AG, Basel)

There is evidence consistent with the hypothesis that inflammatory and immune mechanisms are involved in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer disease (AD). We have investigated whether the levels of inflammatory associated proteins in serum or lumbar cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) reflect the progressive cognitive decline and brain atrophy of AD-patients. Levels of interleukin-1beta(IL-1beta), IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra), interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), the soluble TNF receptors type I and II (sTNFR I and II), and the acute phase protein alpha1-antichymotrypsin (x1-ACT) were determined in paired serum and CSF samples taken yearly over a period of 2-5 years from pathologically confirmed AD patients (n = 8) and normal controls or non-AD subjects with other CNS pathology (n = 9). No significant differences were found between AD subjects and controls in the mean levels of the above mediators. There was also no correlation in either subject group between the levels of these inflammatory mediators in serum or CSF, and the change in cognitive status or the progression of the atrophy of the medial temporal lobe measured by X-ray computed tomography (CT). The concentrations of IL-1beta, IL-6, and TNF-alpha were determined in brain tissue specimens of five to nine different brain regions in six of the AD patients and four of the non-AD subjects. The levels of IL-1beta and IL-6 in the various brain regions were not significantly different in the AD and the non-AD group. However, in AD patients the level of TNF-alpha was significantly lower in the frontal cortex (32%, p = 0.024), the superior temporal gyrus (57%, p = 0.021), and the entorhinal cortex (49%, p = 0.009) compared with non-AD subjects. Low levels of TNF-alpha in the brain areas that showed neuropathology in AD may indicate a dysregulation of the inflammatory process in AD. Despite this finding, this study does not support the use of measurements of any of the inflammatory mediators investigated here as a diagnostic parameter for AD, due the large overlap in the levels of these factors between AD patients and other subjects, and the poor relation to clinical signs of AD.

The inflammatory process in aseptic meningitis is generally mild and self-limited. To evaluate control mechanisms underlying this process, we determined interleukin (IL)-1 beta and IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra) concentrations, using enzyme linked immunosorbent assay, in cerebrospinal fluid from patients with aseptic meningitis (n = 55, median age [range]; 5.0 [1-15] years). We cross-sectionally analyzed the relationship of IL-1 beta and IL-1ra levels to leucocyte count in terms of interval between clinical onset and lumbar puncture. IL-1 beta levels were highest in the cerebrospinal fluid obtained between 12 and 24 hours after onset (n = 23, median: 2.30 pg/ml). The IL-1 beta level was significantly correlated with leucocyte count. On the other hand, IL-1ra level tended to increase over a longer interval, reaching a plateau between 24 and 36 hours after onset (n = 13, median: 5190 pg/ml). The molar ratio of IL-1ra to IL-1 beta was thus lowest between 12 and 24 hours after onset (median: 2341), which coincided with the peak increase in leucocyte count. The results are compatible with the idea that IL-1ra should be important for the regulation of IL-1 beta activity associated with leucocyte migration in aseptic meningitis.

Proinflammatory cytokines [interleukin (IL)-1 and -6 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha] function within a complex network, stimulating the release of one another, as well as other cytokine agonists and antagonists. These interactions have not been as widely studied in vivo. Therefore, the following studies measured cytokines in blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from juvenile rhesus monkeys after intravenous administration of cytokines. IL-1 alpha and IL-1 beta were equally effective in elevating blood levels of IL-6. In contrast, IL-1 beta was the only cytokine that significantly elevated IL-6 levels in the CSF. Interestingly, both IL-1 and IL-6 increased levels of IL-1 receptor antagonist in the blood and comparably stimulated the release of cortisol. A second study confirmed that the IL-1-induced IL-6 in CSF was brain derived and not a result of diffusion from blood. This research extends studies of the cytokine cascade to the central nervous system (CNS), highlighting the brain response to peripheral activation.

Inflammatory cytokines (interleukin [IL]-1 and tumor necrosis factor [TNF]) have specific inhibitors (IL-1 receptor antagonist [IL-1Ra] and TNF-soluble receptors), the concentration of which can indicate activation and regulation of this system. We measured IL-1 and IL-1Ra in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of HIV-infected patients and seronegative controls. High IL-1Ra concentrations were found in samples from patients with opportunistic meningoencephalitis, even in the presence of normal cell count and protein content, not in samples from patients with leucoencephalopathies or controls. Therefore, IL-1Ra appears to be a sensitive marker of inflammation in the central nervous system. In contradistinction to previous results obtained from blood measurement, IL-1alpha and IL-1beta remained below detectable levels in all cases, suggesting that IL-1 may be regulated differently in the central nervous system and in the blood.

We prospectively evaluated the clinical and biochemical responses to enzyme-replacement therapy (ERT) with macrophage-targeted glucocerebrosidase (Ceredase) infusions in 5 patients (age, 3.5-8.5 years) with type 3 Gaucher's disease. The patients were followed for up to 5 years. Enzyme dosage ranged from 120 to 480 U/kg of body weight/month. Systemic manifestations of the disease regressed in all patients. Neurological deficits remained stable in 3 patients and slightly improved in 1. One patient developed myoclonic encephalopathy. Cognitive deterioration occurred in 1 patient and electroencephalographic deterioration in 2. Sequential cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples were obtained during the first 3 years of treatment in 3 patients and were analyzed for biochemical markers of disease burden. Glucocerebroside and psychosine levels were not elevated in these specimens, whereas chitotriosidase and quinolinic acid were elevated in 2 patients. Progressive decrease in the CSF levels of these latter macrophage markers during 3 years of treatment implies a decreased number of Gaucher cells in the cerebral perivascular space. Similar changes were not observed in the patient who had a poor neurological outcome. In conclusion, ERT reverses systemic manifestations of type 3 Gaucher's disease and appears to reduce the burden of Gaucher cells in the brain-CSF compartment in some patients.

Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) causes an inflammatory reaction and may lead to ischemic brain damage. Experimental ischemia has been shown to be connected with the alarm-reaction cytokines interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF alpha). Increased levels of these cytokines, however, have not been detected thus far in patients following an SAH event. For this reason daily cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples were collected from 22 consecutively enrolled patients with SAH and from 10 non-SAH patients (controls). The CSF samples were studied using immunoassays for IL-1Ra and TNF alpha to investigate whether an SAH caused increased cytokine levels. The mean IL-1Ra levels were significantly higher in patients with SAH who were in poor clinical condition on admission than in those who were in good condition (318 pg/ml vs. 82 pg/ml, p < 0.02). The IL-1Ra levels increased during delayed ischemic episodes and after surgery in patients who were in poor clinical condition. Significant increases in IL-1Ra and TNF alpha were detected during Days 4 through 10 in patients suffering from SAH who eventually had a poor outcome (p < 0.05). Patients with good outcomes and control patients had low levels of these cytokines. The levels of IL-1Ra increased after surgery in patients with Hunt and Hess Grades III through V, but not in those with Grade I or II. This finding indicates that patients in poor clinical condition have a labile biochemical state in the brain that is reflected in increased cytokine levels following the surgical trauma. Both IL-1Ra and TNF alpha are known to induce fever, malaise, leukocytosis, and nitric oxide synthesis and to mediate ischemic and traumatic brain injuries. The present study shows that levels of these cytokines increase after SAH occurs and that high cytokine levels correlate with brain damage. It is therefore likely that fever, leukocytosis, and nitric oxide synthesis are also mediated by IL-1 in patients suffering from SAH and it is probable that the inflammatory mediators contribute to brain damage.

Interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta) is considered an important mediator in the pathogenesis of septic shock or bacterial meningitis. Its activity is specifically modulated by IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra) and IL-1 soluble receptor type II (IL-1sRII). We now describe the time-course of IL-1beta and these modulating agents in 59 patients with acute meningococcal infections, the prototype human disease of acute endotoxin exposure. Plasma IL-1beta was increased only in severe shock and normalized within 12 to 24 hours, indicating that patients were admitted in an early stage of cytokine activation. Increased IL-1beta values in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) were confined to patients with meningitis. Plasma IL-1Ra was elevated in both shock and nonshock patients, extremely high values being measured in severe shock. High concentrations of IL-1Ra in CSF were found in meningitis. Plasma IL-1Ra peaked shortly after IL-1beta and decreased steeply in 1 to 2 days, followed by sustained moderately elevated levels in shock patients. Interestingly, IL-1sRII showed a completely different pattern. At admission, both nonshock and shock patients manifested a similar moderate increase of plasma IL-1sRII. However, during recovery plasma IL-1sRII further increased reaching maximal concentrations 3 to 5 days after admission, 1 to 2 days after normalization of IL-1Ra. In shock patients this increase was more prominent than in nonshock patients. It is hypothesized that this increase in plasma IL-1sRII can be explained by a synergistic effect of dexamethasone and endotoxin. A second interesting observation was that, unlike the pattern in plasma, IL-1sRII levels in CSF paralleled those of IL-1beta and IL-1Ra. This suggests different modulation of IL-1beta activity in the subarachnoid space and the plasma compartment. We conclude that: (1) During the early stage of meningococcal infections IL-1Ra modulates IL-1 activity, whereas during recovery IL-1sRII may be more important. (2) Modulation in CSF and in the plasma compartment are differentially regulated.

The familial form of hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) is an inherited disease with disturbed immunomodulation and characterized by fever, hepatosplenomegaly, cytopenia, hypertriglyceridemia, and coagulopathy, i.e., findings which are similar to many of the reported biological effects of the inflammatory cytokines. Due to the previously shown hypercytokinemia in active HLH with elevated levels of interleukin (IL)-6, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and interferon-gamma, it has been suggested that cytokine dysregulation may be of pathophysiological importance. Here we have assayed the serum levels of the members of the IL-1 ligand family, the two agonists IL-1 alpha and IL-1 beta and the antagonist IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra), in nine children with HLH and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) specimens from four children. Serum IL-1ra was elevated in all patients with active disease to a degree which correlated well with disease activity. Furthermore, the levels decreased day by day during treatment of a patient who suffered a relapse. Moreover, high levels of IL-1ra were also detected in CSF during active disease. However, IL-1 beta levels were all within normal limits and circulating IL-1 alpha levels were normal in all but two patients.