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Trait-based analyses explaining the different responses of species and communities to environmental changes are increasing in frequency. European butterflies are an indicator group that responds rapidly to environmental changes with extensive citizen science contributions to documenting changes of abundance and distribution. Species traits have been used to explain long- and short-term responses to climate, land-use and vegetation changes. Studies are often characterised by limited trait sets being used, with risks that the relative roles of different traits are not fully explored. Butterfly trait information is dispersed amongst various sources and descriptions sometimes differ between sources. We have therefore drawn together multiple information sets to provide a comprehensive trait database covering 542 taxa and 25 traits described by 217 variables and sub-states of the butterflies of Europe and Maghreb (northwest Africa) which should serve for improved trait-based ecological, conservation-related, phylogeographic and evolutionary studies of this group of insects. We provide this data in two forms; the basic data and as processed continuous and multinomial data, to enhance its potential usage.

Understanding the dynamics of biodiversity, including the spatial distribution of genetic diversity, is critical for predicting responses to environmental changes, as well as for effective conservation measures. This task requires tracking changes in biodiversity at large spatial scales and correlating with species functional traits. We provide three comprehensive resources to understand the determinants for mitochondrial DNA differentiation represented by (a) 15,609 COI sequences and (b) 14 traits belonging to 307 butterfly species occurring in Western‐Central Europe and (c) the first multi‐locus phylogenetic tree of all European butterfly species. By applying phylogenetic regressions we show that mitochondrial DNA spatial differentiation (as measured with GST, G′ST, D and DST) is negatively correlated with species traits determining dispersal capability and colonization ability. Thanks to the high spatial resolution of the COI data, we also provide the first zoogeographic regionalization maps based on intraspecific genetic variation. The overall pattern obtained by averaging the spatial differentiation of all Western‐Central European butterflies shows that the paradigm of long‐term glacial isolation followed by rapid pulses of post‐glacial expansion has been a pervasive phenomenon in European butterflies. The results and the extensive data sets we provide here constitute the basis for genetically‐informed conservation plans for a charismatic group in a continent where flying insects are under alarming decline.

Understanding the dynamics of biodiversity, including the spatial distribution of genetic diversity, is critical for predicting responses to environmental changes, as well as for effective conservation measures. This task requires tracking changes in biodiversity at large spatial scales and correlating with species functional traits. We provide three comprehensive resources to understand the determinants for mitochondrial DNA differentiation represented by (a) 15,609 COI sequences and (b) 14 traits belonging to 307 butterfly species occurring in Western‐Central Europe and (c) the first multi‐locus phylogenetic tree of all European butterfly species. By applying phylogenetic regressions we show that mitochondrial DNA spatial differentiation (as measured with GST, G′ST, D and DST) is negatively correlated with species traits determining dispersal capability and colonization ability. Thanks to the high spatial resolution of the COI data, we also provide the first zoogeographic regionalization maps based on intraspecific genetic variation. The overall pattern obtained by averaging the spatial differentiation of all Western‐Central European butterflies shows that the paradigm of long‐term glacial isolation followed by rapid pulses of post‐glacial expansion has been a pervasive phenomenon in European butterflies. The results and the extensive data sets we provide here constitute the basis for genetically‐informed conservation plans for a charismatic group in a continent where flying insects are under alarming decline.

The mechanisms shaping island biotas are not yet well understood mostly because of a lack of studies comparing eco-evolutionary fingerprints over entire taxonomic groups. Here, we linked community structure (richness, frequency and nestedness) and genetic differentiation (based on mitochondrial DNA) in order to compare insular butterfly communities occurring over a key intercontinental area in the Mediterranean (Italy-Sicily-Maghreb). We found that community characteristics and genetic structure were influenced by a combination of contemporary and historical factors, and among the latter, connection during the Pleistocene had an important impact. We showed that species can be divided into two groups with radically different properties: widespread taxa had high dispersal capacity, a nested pattern of occurrence, and displayed little genetic structure, while rare species were mainly characterized by low dispersal, high turnover and genetically differentiated populations. These results offer an unprecedented view of the distinctive butterfly communities and of the main processes determining them on each studied island and highlight the importance of assessing the phylogeographic value of populations for conservation.

Due to the attractiveness of butterflies, and their usefulness as model systems for biological questions, there has been a considerable amount of material written on butterfly biology, largely in Europe. This book synthesizes all relevant and recent knowledge in the field, which is a must for those making use of this taxonomic group as a model system. It is divided into five major parts which deal with habitat use, population ecology and genetics, evolutionary ecology, distribution and phylogeny, and global change and conservation. There are growing numbers of scientific projects and networks in Europe in which the use of butterflies as tools and targets for conservation is central, and application of knowledge is closely related to European cultural landscapes. However, the chapters can also be applied to a wide geographic scope. Written by an international team of experts, this timely book is suitable for students, researchers and enthusiasts.

Land use has a profound effect on the presence and abundance of butterfly species. Butterflies rely on the presence and quality of a series of ecological resources for all life stages, all of which can be strongly influenced by the management of vegetation. This chapter gives an overview of current knowledge and experience with management aspects of different European biotopes from the viewpoint of butterfly conservation. Traditional management practices have been the driving force for the recent evolution of plant and animal communities of European ecosystems. In modern landscapes, most butterflies cannot survive without active management of their habitats. Biotopes reviewed include woodlands, alpine, subalpine and arctic ecosystems, heathlands, wetlands, grasslands, arable landscapes, and disturbed and urban landscapes. There is a recurrent pattern of dependency on early succession sites. This is also true for many woodland species; management has to be based on maintaining low tree densities with either permanent or dynamically managed clearings. A critical factor for butterfly survival in several biotopes is the continuation of natural disturbances (e.g. such as landslides, or animal grazing). Many sites of conservation interest are too small to sustain viable populations of threatened specialist species, consequently increased connectivity between remaining habitats (e.g. creation of stepping stones) can be crucial to the long-term survival of many species. Unified prescriptions applied across entire regions can be deleterious and possibly even disastrous for some species. Management strategies need to be regionally or locally adapted based on adequate data and knowledge. Agri-environmental schemes may offer the potential to conserve species of the wider countryside, but they should be appropriately targeted to improve significantly the resource base for wildlife. Urban areas also offer opportunities for butterfly survival; a small shift in aesthetic perception