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A number of measurement and design issues that are critical to the use of multiple-baseline procedures in evaluating instructional interventions were highlighted. First, issues related to the interaction between length of baseline assessment and the following outcomes were presented: (a) deceleration in behavior across baseline, (b) prediction of behavior change, (c) error analyses performance on instructional stimuli, and (d) reactivity of observation. Finally, an attempt was made to match the variety of multiple-baseline designs to specific questions often asked by instructional researchers.

Group and individual contingency arrangements were alternately applied to modify the on-task performance of 5 behavior-disordered children. Concurrent records were maintained regarding the children's task-relevant (facilitating) and non-task-relevant (inhibiting) verbalizations to peers. Both contingency arrangements were effective for controlling the children's on-task behavior while only the group contingency was associated with changes in their verbalizations. Specifically, the group contingency, as compared to the baseline and the individual contingency, was accompanied by a significant increase in facilitating verbalizations by peers. Moreover, the group contingency, in relation to the baseline but not the individual contingency, resulted in significantly fewer inhibiting verbalizations. The individual contingency did not affect either facilitating or inhibiting verbalizations of peers.

The effects of prompting and social reinforcement directed to target subjects on their social behavior and that of peers who never received prompting and reinforcement for positive social behavior, were examined. In a combined reversal and multiple-baseline design, three behaviorally handicapped preschool boys who exhibited divergent social behavior repertoires and varied histories with social reinforcement events were sequentially exposed to intervention conditions in order to investigate "spillover" of treatment effects. Prompting and reinforcement increased positive social behavior and decreased negative social behavior emitted by all target subjects. The results also demonstrated a "spillover" effect on two target subjects, who at various times were not under intervention, and on the peers as well. The findings suggest that: (a) the direct and indirect effects of intervention procedures may be enhanced by designing treatment based on the social repertoire and reinforcement histories of the subjects; and (b) the treatment "spillover" effect may be increased by applying procedures to two children at once, rather than at one at a time.

Refractive errors in 311 children between the ages of 18 and 48 months were assessed utilizing standard cycloplegic retinoscopy and a noncycloplegic near retinoscopy technique as promulgated by Mohindra. Results from this study indicate little agreement between the two objective refraction methods.

Social approach to peers was evaluated as an intervention for isolate preschoolers. During baseline, confederate peers made few social approaches to the target subjects. Confederates greatly increased their rate of social approaches during the first intervention, decreased social approaches during a second baseline, and increased social approaches again in a second intervention phase. Increases in confederate social initiations immediately increased the frequency of subjects' positive social behavior. Additionally, five of six subjects showed an increase in their own positive social initiations during intervention periods. The results suggest that: (a) peers may be programmed to increase the positive social behaviors of their isolate classmates, and (b) remediating social deficits requires assessment and intervention specifically tailored to the individual child.

A peer-initiation training procedure was implemented across multiple peer trainers to investigate social interactions between severely withdrawn autistic children and their nonhandicapped peers. For one subject, substantial increases in spontaneous interactions with training and nontraining peers occurred after the peer-initiation procedure was applied across two training exemplars. Spontaneous social interactions continued even after the training procedure was removed. Although experimental control was established with the second subject during training, spontaneous interactions during nontraining periods were primarily with training peers. The results contribute to an emerging data base on the social interactions of autistic and severely withdrawn handicapped children and on peer-initiation training procedures.

The Parsons visual acuity test (PVAT) uses modified Allen test targets for visual acuity assessment in young children and persons who are difficult to test. Using this method, we were able to obtain a visual acuity threshold in 44% of 18- to 24-month-old children and in 90% of children aged 25 to 36 months. At all ages tested, the mode for visual acuity was 20/30; however, the percentage of those with 20/20 increased with age. The decision whether to refer was correctly made by means of the PVAT criterion 83% of the time.

This article discusses the importance of providing vision screening services to students who are difficult-to-test and describes strategies for providing such services. Included in the discussion is an overview of various instruments that may be used to assess visual acuity. One of the instruments, the Parsons Visual Acuity Test, is described in detail as a tool for assessing visual acuity of the difficult-to-test. In addition, a discussion is presented which emphasizes the importance of providing follow-up services to those children who are referred for professional eye examinations. The authors delineate the vital role of the school nurse in assisting the difficult-to-test students to gain necessary vision care services through screening, referral, obtaining appropriate treatment and providing follow-up services.