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Background: When unaddressed, contamination in child maltreatment research, in which some proportion of children recruited for a nonmaltreated comparison group are exposed to maltreatment, downwardly biases the significance and magnitude of effect size estimates. This study extends previous contamination research by investigating how a dual-measurement strategy of detecting and controlling contamination impacts causal effect size estimates of child behavior problems., Methods: This study included 634 children from the LONGSCAN study with 63 cases of confirmed child maltreatment after age 8 and 571 cases without confirmed child maltreatment. Confirmed child maltreatment and internalizing and externalizing behaviors were recorded every 2 years between ages 4 and 16. Contamination in the nonmaltreated comparison group was identified and controlled by either a prospective self-report assessment at ages 12, 14, and 16 or by a one-time retrospective self-report assessment at age 18. Synthetic control methods were used to establish causal effects and quantify the impact of contamination when it was not controlled, when it was controlled for by prospective self-reports, and when it was controlled for by retrospective self-reports., Results: Rates of contamination ranged from 62% to 67%. Without controlling for contamination, causal effect size estimates for internalizing behaviors were not statistically significant. Causal effects only became statistically significant after controlling contamination identified from either prospective or retrospective reports and effect sizes increased by between 17% and 54%. Controlling contamination had a smaller impact on effect size increases for externalizing behaviors but did produce a statistically significant overall effect, relative to the model ignoring contamination, when prospective methods were used., Conclusions: The presence of contamination in a nonmaltreated comparison group can underestimate the magnitude and statistical significance of causal effect size estimates, especially when investigating internalizing behavior problems. Addressing contamination can facilitate the replication of results across studies., (© 2024 The Authors. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Association for Child and Adolescent Mental Health.)

Contamination is a methodological phenomenon occurring in child maltreatment research when individuals in an established comparison condition have, in reality, been exposed to maltreatment during childhood. The current paper: (1) provides a conceptual and methodological introduction to contamination in child maltreatment research, (2) reviews the empirical literature demonstrating that the presence of contamination biases causal estimates in both prospective and retrospective cohort studies of child maltreatment effects, (3) outlines a dual measurement strategy for how child maltreatment researchers can address contamination, and (4) describes modern statistical methods for generating causal estimates in child maltreatment research after contamination is controlled. Our goal is to introduce the issue of contamination to researchers examining the effects of child maltreatment in an effort to improve the precision and replication of causal estimates that ultimately inform scientific and clinical decision-making as well as public policy., Competing Interests: Declaration of conflicting interestsThe author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Contamination, when members of a comparison or control condition are exposed to the event or intervention under scientific investigation, is a methodological phenomenon that downwardly biases the magnitude of effect size estimates. This study tested a novel approach for controlling contamination in observational child maltreatment research. Data from The Longitudinal Studies of Child Abuse and Neglect (LONGSCAN; N = 1354) were obtained to estimate the risk of confirmed child maltreatment on trajectories of internalizing and externalizing behaviors before and after controlling contamination. Baseline models, where contamination was uncontrolled, demonstrated a risk for greater internalizing ( b = .29, p < .001, d = .40) and externalizing ( b = .14, p = .040, d = .19) behavior trajectories. Final models, where contamination was controlled by separating the comparison condition into subgroups that did or did not self-report maltreatment, also demonstrated risks for greater internalizing ( b = .37, p < .001, d = .51) and externalizing ( b = .22, p = .028, d = .29) behavior trajectories. However, effect size estimates in final models were 27.5%-52.6% larger compared to baseline models. Controlling contamination in child maltreatment research can strengthen effect size estimates for child behavior problems, aiding future child maltreatment research design and analysis.

Background: Previous research has observed a positive correlation between having greenways or trails proximate to homes and the physical activity behaviors among residents. Few studies using a pre-post research design have been conducted, and each has pointed to the need for more rigorous studies which incorporate an appropriate control group., Methods: Residents from households living within 1 mile of a proposed greenway and those from a control neighborhood located between 2 and 3 miles of the proposed greenway were randomly selected to participate in the study. Participants were mailed a survey before the onset of construction and again 1 year after the trail was opened. Outcomes were the number of days during the previous week that respondents reported participating in walking, moderate activity, and vigorous activity., Results: Repeated measures analyses of variance indicated no significant differences between the experimental and control groups in days of walking, moderate activity, or vigorous activity before and after the greenway was constructed., Conclusions: Findings suggest that building a greenway did not affect the physical activity behaviors of proximate residents. Other studies should consider different trail types from a variety of settings to determine whether physical activity behavior changes may be context specific.

Purpose: Research on youth physical activity has focused on urban areas. Rural adolescents are more likely to be physically inactive than urban youth, contributing to higher risk of obesity and chronic diseases. Study objectives were to: (1) identify perceived opportunities and barriers to youth physical activity within a rural area and (2) identify rural community characteristics that facilitate or inhibit efforts to promote youth physical activity., Methods: Thirty in-depth interviews were conducted with expert informants in 2 rural southern US counties. Interviewees were recruited from diverse positions across multiple sectors based on their expert knowledge of community policies and programs for youth physical activity., Findings: Informants saw ball fields, natural amenities, and school sports as primary resources for youth physical activity, but they were divided on whether opportunities were abundant or scarce. Physical distance, social isolation, lack of community offerings, and transportation were identified as key barriers. Local social networks facilitated political action and volunteer recruitment to support programs. However, communities often lacked human capital to sustain initiatives. Racial divisions influenced perceptions of opportunities. Despite divisions, there were also examples of pooling resources to create and sustain physical activity opportunities., Conclusions: Developing partnerships and leveraging local resources may be essential to overcoming barriers for physical activity promotion in rural areas. Involvement of church leaders, school officials, health care workers, and cooperative extension is likely needed to establish and sustain youth rural physical activity programs. Allocating resources to existing community personnel and volunteers for continuing education may be valuable., (© 2014 National Rural Health Association.)

Background: Little is known about the associations between natural amenities, recreation facility density, and obesity, at a national level. Therefore, the purpose of this paper was to examine associations between county-level natural amenities, density of recreation facilities, and obesity prevalence among United States counties., Methods: Data were obtained from a compilation of sources within the United States Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service Food Environment Atlas. Independent variables of interest were the natural amenities scale and recreation facilities per capita. The dependent variable was county-level obesity prevalence. Potential covariates included a measure of county-level percent Black residents, percent Hispanic residents, median age, and median household income. All models were stratified by population loss, persistent poverty, and metro status. Multilevel linear regression models were used to examine the association between obesity and natural amenities and recreation facilities, with "state" as a random effects second level variable., Results: There were statistically significant negative associations between percent obesity and 1) natural amenities and 2) recreation facilities per capita., Conclusions: Future research should examine environmental and policy changes to increase recreation facilities and enhance accessible natural amenities to decrease obesity rates.

Objective: To examine associations between the densities of available parkland, parkland provided per capita, and levels of physical activity (PA) and overweight in urban United States., Design: Cross-sectional correlation research using data drawn from the Trust for Public Land's 2010 City Park Facts and The Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS). City Park Facts is a report containing "basic information on urban park systems--from acreage, to facilities, to staffing, to budgets, to usership, and more" for America's 85 largest cities. The Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System is a state-based surveillance system that collects information on health risk behaviors, preventive health practices, and health care access primarily related to chronic disease and injury., Setting: Sixty-seven metropolitan statistical areas in the United States that provided data for both reports., Participants: Randomly selected adults aged 18 years and older who participated in the 2009 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance Survey in the 67 metropolitan statistical areas., Main Outcome Measure(s): Total parkland per acre of metropolitan area was correlated to inactivity, engaging in recommended levels of moderate or vigorous PA, engaging in recommended levels of vigorous PA, and body weight. Parkland acreage per 1000 residents was correlated to these same variables. Multilevel models considered these relationships while controlling for race, family income, and age of respondents and accounting for clustering by metropolitan statistical area., Results: There were significant, positive correlations between park density and PA (r(s) = 0.37, n = 67, P < .01) and between park density and exercise (r(s) = 0.35, n = 67, P < .01), and a negative correlation between park density and being above normal weight (r(s) = -0.32, n = 67, P < .01). Adjusted multilevel models showed that parkland density in the highest versus lowest quartile was associated with significantly higher odds of meeting PA guidelines (aOR = 1.19, 95% CI: 1.08-1.30) and reduced odds of being overweight/obese (aOR = 0.85, 95% CI: 0.76-0.95)., Conclusions: Each of these findings substantiates the need for providing parkland in a community. As such, this research helps to support the notion that the development of a strong park system may lead to positive PA and health outcomes for that community.

How well do U.S. students read? In this article, Sean Reardon, Rachel Valentino, and Kenneth Shores rely on studies using data from national and international literacy assessments to answer this question. In part, the answer depends on the specific literacy skills assessed. The authors show that almost all U.S. students can "read" by third grade, if reading is defined as proficiency in basic procedural word-reading skills. But reading for comprehension--integrating background knowledge and contextual information to make sense of a text--requires a set of knowledge-based competencies in addition to word-reading skills. By the standards used in various large-scale literacy assessments, only about a third of U.S. students in middle school possess the knowledge-based competencies to "read" in this more comprehensive sense. This low level of literacy proficiency does not appear to be a result of declining performance over time. Literacy skills of nine-year-olds in the United States have increased modestly over the past forty years, while the skills of thirteen- and seventeen-year-olds have remained relatively flat. Literacy skills vary considerably among students, however. For example, the literacy skills of roughly 10 percent of seventeen-year-olds are at the level of the typical nine-year-old. This variation is patterned in part by race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic background. Black and Hispanic students enter high school with average literacy skills three years behind those of white and Asian students; students from low-income families enter high school with average literacy skills five years behind those of high-income students. These are gaps that no amount of remedial instruction in high school is likely to eliminate. And while the racial and ethnic disparities are smaller than they were forty to fifty years ago, socioeconomic disparities in literacy skills are growing. Nor is the low level of literacy skills particularly a U.S. phenomenon. On international comparisons, American students perform modestly above average compared with those in other developed countries (and well above average among a larger set of countries). Moreover, there is no evidence that U.S. students lose ground relative to those in other countries during the middle school years. Thus, although literacy skills in the United States are lower than needed to meet the demands of modern society, the same is true in most other developed countries.

Background: A significant association has been identified between physical activity and proximity to greenways. However, residents more likely to be active may have selected to live near existing greenways. The purpose of this study was to determine whether development of a new greenway has the potential to increase activity levels of existing, proximate residents., Methods: In 2008, survey data were collected before and after 5 miles of greenway were added to an existing greenway., Results: When comparing residents living nearest (≤ .50 miles) the new greenway section with those living further (.51-1.0 miles), days spent walking and participating in moderate physical activity increased. Despite mean increases, no significant interactions were detected., Conclusions: Although evidence is inconclusive, apparent increases in walking and moderate activity suggest development of a greenway proximate to residents' homes is likely to have a positive effect on participation levels. Additional research is needed to address article limitations.

Purpose: To examine associations between county-level natural amenities, physical activity (PA), and body mass index (BMI)., Design and Setting: Cross-sectional study among 100 North Carolina counties., Measures: We obtained percentage of county residents meeting PA criteria and county-wide means for reported height and weight from the North Carolina Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, combining years 2003, 2005, and 2007. The county natural amenities scale was the independent variable. Potential county-level covariates were percentage rural, percentage black, median age, and median household income (Census 2000)., Analysis: We conducted weighted bivariate and linear regression analyses to examine relationships between natural amenities, aggregate PA, and aggregate BMI., Results: BMI and natural amenities were negatively associated (parameter estimate  =  -.13 (.06), p  =  .03). When percentage meeting PA criteria was included, the parameter estimate attenuated 15%., Conclusion: There was an inverse relationship between natural amenities and BMI, partially mediated by PA.

Background: While considerable attention has been given to quantifying leisure-time physical activity (LTPA) among subpopulations, less attention has focused on the perception of the experience as leisure. The current study describes the prevalence of leisure-like experiences during LTPA among college students. We describe the social contexts and activity settings that contribute to participant enjoyment of LTPA since enjoyment has been linked to participation and adherence., Methods: Data were collected from 192 undergraduate students using a short questionnaire and 2 days of time diaries., Results: Respondents spent nearly equal time working, sleeping, and engaged in discretionary activities. Students reported 512 minutes of discretionary time each day, of which 77 minutes were spent in LTPA and 68% was classified by respondents as leisure. Active sports/exercise (including aerobics and weight lifting), walking, and dancing at bars or parties were the most frequent LTPA choices. When LTPA involved the presence of human companions, activities were more likely to be perceived by respondents as leisure experiences. Physical activities undertaken at public parks, bars/dance clubs and private recreation centers were also more likely to be perceived as leisure experiences., Conclusions: Findings indicate that social instead of traditional exercise activities may motivate LTPA participation among college students. For example, results suggest the importance of dancing in this population.

Purpose: Chances for a healthy life are not equally distributed across society. Instead, genetic, social, and environmental factors help determine the probability that a child will be healthy and active. We investigate the probability that youth will be physically active by examining 3 consistent correlates of physical activity. The individual and interaction effects of self-efficacy, social support, and access to physical activity areas are used to predict rural youth physical activity participation. We hypothesize that youth lacking all 3 activity supports will be in "triple jeopardy" for physical activity participation., Methods: Data were collected using a researcher-administered questionnaire with 147 youth in 2004. Youth ages 9-18 were enrolled in grades 4, 7, and 11 in 2 diverse rural counties in Georgia., Findings: Overall, a greater number of disadvantageous statuses were related to a lower probability of physical activity participation. Low self-efficacy, low social support, and no access to physical activity areas were related to lower levels of physical activity participation among rural youth. These variables exerted a stronger impact when factors were allowed to interact than when their isolated effects were summed., Conclusions: This study assessed correlates of physical activity among rural youth. These investigations, while scarce, can help identify subgroups of the population that may need to be targeted for intervention. Findings indicate that lived experience of youth (captured by the interaction of physical activity correlates) may be critical for understanding patterns of active and sedentary living., (© 2010 National Rural Health Association.)

Many adolescents, both rural and urban, are not meeting the recommended levels for physical activity (PA). This investigation was designed to elicit socioecologic barriers and facilitators for PA in rural and urban middle school youth and their parents. Thirteen focus groups were conducted with 41 youth and 50 parents from eastern North Carolina. Distance, cost, crime/danger and television were mentioned as the primary barriers among parents. Youth mentioned school policies related to PA and crime/danger as the main PA barriers. The most salient facilitators discussed by parents were social/peer facilitators, facilities available and parental role modeling of PA. The primary facilitators mentioned by youth were social outlets and facilities available. Results indicate that intrapersonal, interpersonal, environmental and policy factors related to PA resonated with both youth and parents. Since rural and urban residents often perceive and interact differently with PA environments, more research is needed to properly adapt interventions.

Objective: A physical activity disparity exists between rural and urban residents. Community parks are resources for physical activity because they are publicly provided, available at a low cost, and accessible to most residents. We examine the use of and physical activity outcomes associated with rural and urban parks., Methods: Onsite observations were conducted using the System for Observing Play and Recreation in Communities (SOPARC) at four rural and four urban parks. Momentary sampling scans were conducted four times per day for seven days at each site., Results: A total of 6,545 park visitors were observed. Both rural and urban park visitors were observed more often at larger parks with paved trails and attended most often on weekends. Rural park visits were more frequent than urban park visits but rural visits were less physically active., Conclusion: Although similarities were observed between rural and urban park visits, differences suggest that findings from park and physical activity studies in urban areas should not be considered representative of their rural counterparts. Given that the majority of existing park and physical activity research has been undertaken in urban settings, the need for complementary research in rural settings has been made evident through this presentation of baseline descriptive data.

Context: Challenged with a higher incidence of disease, reduced social support, and less access to physical activity facilities and services, rural older adults may find healthy active living a challenge. Despite these challenges, some rural older adults manage to achieve active lifestyles., Purpose: This study investigates the relative importance of 4 extra-individual correlates of physical activity to physical activity achievement in rural seniors., Methods: Data were drawn from mail questionnaires completed by 454 adults age 65 and over in 7 rural North Carolina counties., Findings: Results from an analysis of covariance indicate that respondents who approached CDC/ACSM recommended levels of physical activity were significantly more likely to report that they lived within walking distance to parks, perceived they had transportation to physical activity areas, had a partner with whom to be active, and felt activity facilities were safe. Next, 7 extra-individual correlates of physical activity were entered into a backward logistic regression. The resultant model predicting physical activity achievement among rural older adults included social support for physical activity, a safe environment for physical activity, and reported ability to walk to a local park., Conclusions: Interventions designed to provide social support, heighten safety at activity areas and improve park infrastructure may provide opportunities to increase physical activity among seniors.

Despite widespread knowledge that physical activity is a valuable mechanism for preventing many lifestyle diseases, data from the 2001 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System indicate that less than half of the US population met activity recommendations established by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. To increase physical activity levels, community officials around the United States have identified public parks as a convenient, low-cost resource to enable active living. However, the amenities of the built park environment that best facilitate active park visits are unknown. The current article describes the relationship of micro-level environmental components and park visitors' physical activity. Using the System for Observing Play and Recreation in Communities, park visitation patterns are documented and described according to user demographics. Broadly, visitors who were observed in park environments, which contained playgrounds, sport courts, and paths, were significantly more active than visitors in settings without these features. Furthermore, six types of built features were able to explain 58% of the variance in observed activity intensity among park visitors. Findings suggest that built features that support physical activity across the life span (paths and courts in particular) may be considered by community leaders seeking relatively low-cost mechanisms to promote physical activity among residents.

We sequenced the complete genome of Bacillus cereus ATCC 10987, a non-lethal dairy isolate in the same genetic subgroup as Bacillus anthracis. Comparison of the chromosomes demonstrated that B.cereus ATCC 10987 was more similar to B.anthracis Ames than B.cereus ATCC 14579, while containing a number of unique metabolic capabilities such as urease and xylose utilization and lacking the ability to utilize nitrate and nitrite. Additionally, genetic mechanisms for variation of capsule carbohydrate and flagella surface structures were identified. Bacillus cereus ATCC 10987 contains a single large plasmid (pBc10987), of approximately 208 kb, that is similar in gene content and organization to B.anthracis pXO1 but is lacking the pathogenicity-associated island containing the anthrax lethal and edema toxin complex genes. The chromosomal similarity of B.cereus ATCC 10987 to B.anthracis Ames, as well as the fact that it contains a large pXO1-like plasmid, may make it a possible model for studying B.anthracis plasmid biology and regulatory cross-talk.