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Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors report no conflict of interest related to this work.

Objective: To associate surgeon-anesthesiologist team familiarity (TF) with cardiac surgery outcomes., Background: TF, a measure of repeated team member collaborations, has been associated with improved operative efficiency; however, examination of its relationship to clinical outcomes has been limited., Methods: This retrospective cohort study included Medicare beneficiaries undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG), surgical aortic valve replacement (SAVR), or both (CABG+SAVR) between January 1, 2017, and September 30, 2018. TF was defined as the number of shared procedures between the cardiac surgeon and anesthesiologist within 6 months of each operation. Primary outcomes were 30- and 90-day mortality, composite morbidity, and 30-day mortality or composite morbidity, assessed before and after risk adjustment using multivariable logistic regression., Results: The cohort included 113,020 patients (84,397 CABG; 15,939 SAVR; 12,684 CABG+SAVR). Surgeon-anesthesiologist dyads in the highest [31631 patients, TF median (interquartile range)=8 (6, 11)] and lowest [44,307 patients, TF=0 (0, 1)] TF terciles were termed familiar and unfamiliar, respectively. The rates of observed outcomes were lower among familiar versus unfamiliar teams: 30-day mortality (2.8% vs 3.1%, P =0.001), 90-day mortality (4.2% vs 4.5%, P =0.023), composite morbidity (57.4% vs 60.6%, P <0.001), and 30-day mortality or composite morbidity (57.9% vs 61.1%, P <0.001). Familiar teams had lower overall risk-adjusted odds of 30-day mortality or composite morbidity [adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 0.894 (0.868, 0.922), P <0.001], and for SAVR significantly lower 30-day mortality [aOR 0.724 (0.547, 0.959), P =0.024], 90-day mortality [aOR 0.779 (0.620, 0.978), P =0.031], and 30-day mortality or composite morbidity [aOR 0.856 (0.791, 0.927), P <0.001]., Conclusions: Given its relationship with improved 30-day cardiac surgical outcomes, increasing TF should be considered among strategies to advance patient outcomes., Competing Interests: Dr J.H.A. receives funding from the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality; is a member of the Society of Cardiovascular Anesthesiologists Board of Directors; serves on the advisory board for Intelliport. Dr T.K. is a consultant receiving advisor, speaking, or lecture fees from Edwards Lifesciences Corporation, Abbott Laboratories, and Medtronic Inc. Dr K.I.d.l.C. is a consultant receiving advisor, speaking, or lecture fees from Edwards Lifesciences Corporation and Terumo Aortic. Dr S.Y. receives consulting fees from Johnson & Johnson Institute. Dr J.C.C. is a consultant for Abbott Laboratories and Edwards Lifesciences. Dr D.C.S. is a consultant receiving consulting and speaking fees from Edwards Lifesciences. Dr F.D.P. is a noncompensated ad-hoc scientific advisor for Abbott, CH Biomedical, FineHeart, and Medtronic; noncompensated medical monitor for Abiomed; Member, Data Safety Monitoring Board for Carmat and the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute PumpKIN Study; receives grant funding from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute and the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality; and receives partial salary support from Blue Cross/Blue Shield of Michigan as Associate Director of the Michigan Society of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgeons Quality Collaborative. Dr D.S.L. has received a research grant from the National Institutes of Health (NHLBI R01HL146619). Outside of this work, Dr D.S.L.: (1) received research funding from the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, and the National Institutes of Health; (2) served as a consultant for the American Society of Extracorporeal Technology; and (3) received partial salary support from Blue Cross Blue Shield of Michigan to advance quality in Michigan in conjunction with the Michigan Society of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgeons Quality Collaborative. Dr X.W. and Dr J.Y. had full access to all the data in the study and assume responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis. The remaining authors report no conflicts of interest., (Copyright © 2023 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objectives: It is uncertain whether concurrent mitral valve repair or replacement for moderate or greater secondary mitral regurgitation at the time of coronary artery bypass graft or aortic valve replacement surgery improves long-term survival., Methods: Patients undergoing coronary artery bypass graft and/or aortic valve replacement surgery with moderate or greater secondary mitral regurgitation were reviewed. The effect of concurrent mitral valve repair or replacement upon long-term mortality was assessed while accounting for patient and operative characteristics and mitral regurgitation severity., Results: Of 1,515 patients, 938 underwent coronary artery bypass graft or aortic valve replacement surgery alone and 577 underwent concurrent mitral valve repair or replacement. Concurrent mitral valve repair or replacement did not alter the risk of postoperative mortality for patients with moderate mitral regurgitation (hazard ratio = 0.93; 0.75-1.17) or more-than-moderate mitral regurgitation (hazard ratio = 1.09; 0.74-1.60) in multivariable regression. Patients with more-than-moderate mitral regurgitation undergoing coronary artery bypass graft-only surgery had a survival advantage from concurrent mitral valve repair or replacement in the first two postoperative years ( P  = 0.028) that did not persist beyond that time. Patients who underwent concurrent mitral valve repair or replacement had a higher rate of later mitral valve operation or reoperation over the five subsequent years (1.9% vs. 0.2%; P  = 0.0014) than those who did not., Conclusions: These observations suggest that mitral valve repair or replacement for more-than-moderate mitral regurgitation at the time of coronary artery bypass grafting may be reasonable in a suitably selected coronary artery bypass graft population but not for aortic valve replacement, with or without coronary artery bypass grafting. Our findings are supportive of 2021 European guidelines that severe secondary mitral regurgitation "should" or be "reasonabl[y]" intervened upon at the time of coronary artery bypass grafting but do not support 2020 American guidelines for performing mitral valve repair or replacement concurrent with aortic valve replacement, with or without coronary artery bypass grafting., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (© 2023 Asher, Ong, Malapero, Heydarpour, Malzberg, Shahram, Nguyen, Shook, Shernan, Shekar, Kaneko, Citro, Muehlschlegel and Body.)

Background: Conflicting evidence exists regarding the risks and benefits of inotropic therapies during cardiac surgery, and the extent of variation in clinical practice remains understudied. Therefore, the authors sought to quantify patient-, anesthesiologist-, and hospital-related contributions to variation in inotrope use., Methods: In this observational study, nonemergent adult cardiac surgeries using cardiopulmonary bypass were reviewed across a multicenter cohort of academic and community hospitals from 2014 to 2019. Patients who were moribund, receiving mechanical circulatory support, or receiving preoperative or home inotropes were excluded. The primary outcome was an inotrope infusion (epinephrine, dobutamine, milrinone, dopamine) administered for greater than 60 consecutive min intraoperatively or ongoing upon transport from the operating room. Institution-, clinician-, and patient-level variance components were studied., Results: Among 51,085 cases across 611 attending anesthesiologists and 29 hospitals, 27,033 (52.9%) cases received at least one intraoperative inotrope, including 21,796 (42.7%) epinephrine, 6,360 (12.4%) milrinone, 2,000 (3.9%) dobutamine, and 602 (1.2%) dopamine (non-mutually exclusive). Variation in inotrope use was 22.6% attributable to the institution, 6.8% attributable to the primary attending anesthesiologist, and 70.6% attributable to the patient. The adjusted median odds ratio for the same patient receiving inotropes was 1.73 between 2 randomly selected clinicians and 3.55 between 2 randomly selected institutions. Factors most strongly associated with increased likelihood of inotrope use were institutional medical school affiliation (adjusted odds ratio, 6.2; 95% CI, 1.39 to 27.8), heart failure (adjusted odds ratio, 2.60; 95% CI, 2.46 to 2.76), pulmonary circulation disorder (adjusted odds ratio, 1.72; 95% CI, 1.58 to 1.87), loop diuretic home medication (adjusted odds ratio, 1.55; 95% CI, 1.42 to 1.69), Black race (adjusted odds ratio, 1.49; 95% CI, 1.32 to 1.68), and digoxin home medication (adjusted odds ratio, 1.48; 95% CI, 1.18 to 1.86)., Conclusions: Variation in inotrope use during cardiac surgery is attributable to the institution and to the clinician, in addition to the patient. Variation across institutions and clinicians suggests a need for future quantitative and qualitative research to understand variation in inotrope use affecting outcomes and develop evidence-based, patient-centered inotrope therapies., (Copyright © 2023 American Society of Anesthesiologists. All Rights Reserved.)

The complexity of structural heart interventions has led to a demand for sophisticated periprocedural imaging guidance. Although traditional 2-dimensional (2D) transesophageal techniques are used widely, new-generation 3D ultrasound probes enable high temporal and spatial resolution. Multiplanar reconstruction of acquired 3D datasets has gained considerable momentum for precise imaging and to increase the validity of measurements. Previously, this technique was used after the acquisition of suitable 3D datasets. Recent advances in technology have enabled the use of live mode for multiplanar reconstruction across different ultrasound vendor platforms. The use of live multiplanar reconstruction can enhance the precision in real-time imaging, enable simultaneous visualization of structures of interest in multiple planes, reduce the need for probe manipulation, and thereby contribute to the success of the procedures. In this narrative review, the authors describe the rationale and utility for 3D transesophageal live multiplanar reconstruction, and outline its use for the structural heart interventions of mitral and tricuspid valve edge-to-edge repair, left atrial appendage occlusion, and the Lampoon procedure. A 3D transesophageal echocardiogram with live-multiplanar reconstruction has the potential to advance guidance of these complex interventions., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objectives: Functional mitral regurgitation (MR) is observed with ischaemic heart disease or aortic valve disease. Assessing the value of mitral valve repair or replacement (MVR/P) is complicated by frequent discordance between preoperative transthoracic echocardiographic (pTTE) and intraoperative transoesophageal echocardiographic (iTOE) assessment of MR severity. We examined the association of pTTE and iTOE with postoperative mortality in patients with or without MR, at the time of coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) and/or aortic valve replacement without MVR/P., Methods: Medical records of 6629 patients undergoing CABG and/or aortic valve replacement surgery with or without functional MR and who did not undergo MVR/P were reviewed. MR severity assessed by pTTE and iTOE were examined for association with postoperative mortality using proportional hazards regression while accounting for patient and operative characteristics., Results: In 72% of 709 patients with clinically significant (moderate or greater) functional MR detected by pTTE, iTOE performed after induction of anaesthesia demonstrated a reduction in MR severity, while 2% of patients had increased severity of MR by iTOE. iTOE assessment of MR was better associated with long-term postoperative mortality than pTTE in patients with moderate MR [hazard ratio (HR) 1.31 (1.11-1.55) vs 1.02 (0.89-1.17), P-value for comparison of HR 0.025] but was not different for more than moderate MR [1.43 (0.96-2.14) vs 1.27 (0.80-2.02)]., Conclusions: In patients undergoing CABG and/or aortic valve replacement without MVR/P, these findings support intraoperative reassessment of MR severity by iTOE as an adjunct to pTTE in the prediction of mortality. Alone, these findings do not yet provide evidence for an operative strategy., (© The Author(s) 2020. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the European Association for Cardio-Thoracic Surgery. All rights reserved.)

Background: Focused cardiac ultrasound (FoCUS) is an increasingly used diagnostic modality for anesthesiologists and intensivists. However, training residents in its use can be resource intensive. We investigated the feasibility of implementing a self-guided FoCUS curriculum for anesthesiology residents rotating in the postanesthesia care unit (PACU)., Methods: We created a FoCUS curriculum with the aim of providing a consistent largely self-guided experience that would improve FoCUS knowledge and skills while minimizing ongoing time commitment from faculty. To achieve this, we used several methods: (1) developed video didactics and quizzes; (2) used an online educational delivery platform to automate delivery of educational content, monitor resident progress, and elicit feedback; (3) used the transthoracic echocardiography simulator for aided hands-on learning; (4) dedicated educational time that integrated into PACU workflow; (5) worked with a cardiac sonographer; and (6) used image storage software to facilitate remote feedback by ultrasound faculty. The response to the curriculum was evaluated using Kirkpatrick levels 1-3., Results: Forty-one anesthesiology residents rotated through the PACU over a 1-year period and completed this weeklong self-guided FoCUS curriculum. Interesting findings include: (1) favorable evaluation from the residents and (2) improvement in image acquisition skills by objective measures. Once the curriculum was established, ongoing faculty time commitment was approximately 1 hour 20 minutes per week., Conclusions: The implementation of a FoCUS curriculum in the PACU resulted in favorable resident evaluation and improved FoCUS skills. The curriculum was feasible and self-sustainable because of the novel educational approach employed., (© 2020 Society for Education in Anesthesia.)

Background: Currently available 2-dimensional (2D) echocardiographic methods for accurately assessing the mitral valve orifice area (MVA) after mitral valve repair (MVr) are limited due to its complex 3-dimensional (3D) geometry. We compared repaired MVAs obtained with commonly used 2D and 3D echocardiographic methods to a 3D orifice area (3DOA), which is a novel echocardiographic measurement and independent of geometric assumptions., Methods: Intraoperative 2D and 3D transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) images from 20 adult cardiac surgery patients who underwent MVr for mitral regurgitation obtained immediately after repair were retrospectively reviewed. MVAs obtained by pressure half-time (PHT), 2D planimetry (2DP), and 3D planimetry (3DP) were compared to those derived by 3DOA., Results: MVAs (mean value ± standard deviation [SD]) after MVr were obtained by PHT (3 ± 0.6 cm), 2DP (3.58 ± 0.75 cm), 3D planimetry (3DP; 2.78 ± 0.74 cm), and 3DOA (2.32 ± 0.76 cm). MVAs obtained by the 3DOA method were significantly smaller compared to those obtained by PHT (mean difference, 0.68 cm; P = .0003), 2DP (mean difference, 1.26 cm; P < .0001), and 3DP (mean difference, 0.46 cm; P = .003). In addition, MVA defined as an area ≤1.5 cm was identified by 3DOA in 2 patients and by 3DP in 1 patient., Conclusions: Post-MVr MVAs obtained using the novel 3DOA method were significantly smaller than those obtained by conventional echocardiographic methods and may be consistent with a higher incidence of MVA reduction when compared to 2D techniques. Further studies are still needed to establish the clinical significance of 3D echocardiographic techniques used to measure MVA after MVr.

Sex-based differences in outcomes have been shown to affect caregiving in medical disciplines. Increased spending due to postacute care transfer policies has led hospitals to further scrutinize patient outcomes and disposition patterns after inpatient admissions. We examined sex-based differences in rehabilitative service utilization after transcatheter aortic valve implantation (TAVI). We queried all TAVI discharges in the National Inpatient Sample database from 2012 to 2014 (n = 40,900). Thirteen thousand eight hundred fifteen patients were discharged to home and 12,175 patients were discharged to rehabilitation facility; those not discharged routinely or to a rehabilitation facility were excluded. Patients with nonhome discharges were older (83.3 vs 79.0 years) and female (58.3% vs 37.7%) with a greater number of chronic conditions (9.91 vs 9.03) and number of Elixhauser co-morbidities (6.5 vs 5.8, all p < 0.05). Nonhome discharge patients also had a significantly longer length of stay (LOS) (11.3 days vs 5.3 days) and higher hospitalization costs ($66,246 vs $48,710, all p < 0.001) compared to home-discharged patients. Overall in-hospital mortality for female patients who underwent TAVI was higher compared to males (4.6% vs 3.6%, p < 0.05). On multivariable logistic regression, female sex was an independent predictor for disposition to rehabilitation facilities after TAVI (odds ratio 2.17; 95% confidence interval: 1.88 to 2.50; p < 0.001). Other independent predictors for females discharged to rehabilitation included the presence of rheumatoid arthritis and collagen vascular disease, body mass index greater than 30 kg/m 2 , depression, and sum of Elixhauser co-morbidities (all p < 0.001). In conclusion, nonhome discharge TAVI patients added LOS and hospital costs compared to home discharge TAVI patients, and female sex was one of the major predictors despite the lower co-morbidities., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The advent of percutaneous therapies has significantly altered therapeutic options for patients with valvular heart disease. Building on the success of transcatheter aortic valve replacement, both expanded indications and purpose-built devices are now being used to address percutaneous approaches for mitral valve pathology. While surgical mitral valve repair remains the gold standard for addressing significant mitral valve pathology, there has been a progressive increase in the utilization of bioprosthetic valves despite their limited lifespan. The risks of reoperation to address mitral valve repair failure or bioprosthetic valve dysfunction is not insignificant. In light of the aging population and the potential for significant associated comorbidities, less invasive alternative techniques hold particular appeal. Utilization of commercially available transcatheter aortic valve replacement valves for failed surgical valves has been shown to have better short-term mortality than would be predicted for open reoperation. As a result, the US Food and Drug Administration approved the utilization of transcatheter mitral valve-in-valve replacement for the failed bioprosthetic valve in high surgical risk patients. Despite the favorable outcomes, transcatheter mitral valve-in-valve is not without procedural challenges and potential complications including malpositioning, embolization, paravalvular leak, and outflow tract obstruction. Awareness of these challenges, mitigation strategies, and therapeutic options is imperative to optimizing outcomes in this high-risk patient population.

Background: Obtaining reliable and valid information on resident performance is critical to patient safety and training program improvement. The goals were to characterize important anesthesia resident performance gaps that are not typically evaluated, and to further validate scores from a multiscenario simulation-based assessment., Methods: Seven high-fidelity scenarios reflecting core anesthesiology skills were administered to 51 first-year residents (CA-1s) and 16 third-year residents (CA-3s) from three residency programs. Twenty trained attending anesthesiologists rated resident performances using a seven-point behaviorally anchored rating scale for five domains: (1) formulate a clear plan, (2) modify the plan under changing conditions, (3) communicate effectively, (4) identify performance improvement opportunities, and (5) recognize limits. A second rater assessed 10% of encounters. Scores and variances for each domain, each scenario, and the total were compared. Low domain ratings (1, 2) were examined in detail., Results: Interrater agreement was 0.76; reliability of the seven-scenario assessment was r = 0.70. CA-3s had a significantly higher average total score (4.9 ± 1.1 vs. 4.6 ± 1.1, P = 0.01, effect size = 0.33). CA-3s significantly outscored CA-1s for five of seven scenarios and domains 1, 2, and 3. CA-1s had a significantly higher proportion of worrisome ratings than CA-3s (chi-square = 24.1, P < 0.01, effect size = 1.50). Ninety-eight percent of residents rated the simulations more educational than an average day in the operating room., Conclusions: Sensitivity of the assessment to CA-1 versus CA-3 performance differences for most scenarios and domains supports validity. No differences, by experience level, were detected for two domains associated with reflective practice. Smaller score variances for CA-3s likely reflect a training effect; however, worrisome performance scores for both CA-1s and CA-3s suggest room for improvement.

Background: A lower rate of permanent pacemaker (PPM) has been linked to a target aortic implantation height (AIH) >0.70, following transcatheter aortic valve replacement (TAVR) with the SAPIEN 3 valve. Based on clinical experience, it was hypothesized that a higher AIH (≥0.85) would lower the rate of PPM implantation., Methods: A total of 127 patients (66 females, 61 males; mean age 82 ± 8 years) underwent TAVR with the SAPIEN 3 valve between May 2015 and July 2016. AIH was defined as the proportion of the valve frame above the aortic annulus in the post-deployment aortogram. A target AIH (≥0.70) was achieved in 113 patients (89%). Cases were stratified into a High Implantation (HI) group (AIH ≥0.85; 33 patients) or a Standard Implantation (SI) group (AIH <0.85; 94 patients)., Results: The mean Society of Thoracic Surgeons Predicted Risk of Mortality (STS-PROM) score of all patients was 6.4 ± 3.5%. Preoperative right bundle branch block (RBBB) was prevalent in 13% of SI patients, and in 18% of HI patients (p = 0.56). There were no significant differences in operative mortality (3.2% versus 0%), median length of stay (2 days versus 3 days) and incidence of moderate-to-severe paravalvular leak (3.2% versus 0%; all p >0.410) between SI and HI patients, respectively. Likewise, the incidence of new PPM did not differ between the two groups (12% in HI versus 13% in SI; p ≥0.99). The mean AIH was similar for patients with PPM implantation (0.80 ± 0.08) compared to those without (0.78 ± 0.06; p = 0.520). Preoperative RBBB was significantly associated with PPM implantation (odds ratio (OR) 10.1; p = 0.002), and patients who underwent PPM implantation had a higher operative mortality (12.5% versus 1%; p = 0.040)., Conclusions: Among TAVR patients who received the SAPIEN 3 heart valve, a higher AIH (≥0.85) was not associated with a lower rate of PPM implantation or increased operative mortality. Prior RBBB was the only independent risk factor for new PPM implantation. Long-term follow up is crucial in determining the clinical significance of PPM implantation.

Background: The cardiac operating room is a complex environment requiring efficient and effective communication between multiple disciplines. The objectives of this study were to identify and rank critical time points during the perioperative care of cardiac surgical patients, and to assess variability in responses, as a correlate of a shared mental model, regarding the importance of these time points between and within disciplines., Methods: Using Delphi technique methodology, panelists from 3 institutions were tasked with developing a list of critical time points, which were subsequently assigned to pause point (PP) categories. Panelists then rated these PPs on a 100-point visual analog scale. Descriptive statistics were expressed as percentages, medians, and interquartile ranges (IQRs). We defined low response variability between panelists as an IQR ≤ 20, moderate response variability as an IQR > 20 and ≤ 40, and high response variability as an IQR > 40., Results: Panelists identified a total of 12 PPs. The PPs identified by the highest number of panelists were (1) before surgical incision, (2) before aortic cannulation, (3) before cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) initiation, (4) before CPB separation, and (5) at time of transfer of care from operating room (OR) to intensive care unit (ICU) staff. There was low variability among panelists' ratings of the PP "before surgical incision," moderate response variability for the PPs "before separation from CPB," "before transfer from OR table to bed," and "at time of transfer of care from OR to ICU staff," and high response variability for the remaining 8 PPs. In addition, the perceived importance of each of these PPs varies between disciplines and between institutions., Conclusions: Cardiac surgical providers recognize distinct critical time points during cardiac surgery. However, there is a high degree of variability within and between disciplines as to the importance of these times, suggesting an absence of a shared mental model among disciplines caring for cardiac surgical patients during the perioperative period. A lack of a shared mental model could be one of the factors contributing to preventable errors in cardiac operating rooms.

Background: A comprehensive transesophageal echocardiographic (TEE) examination is essential for the evaluation of a mitral valve (MV) repair. The edge-to-edge MV repair (i.e., Alfieri stitch) can pose a unique challenge in assessing iatrogenic mitral stenosis, especially when an asymmetric double-orifice is created. The reliability of the simplified Bernoulli equation for evaluating transvalvular pressure gradients across an asymmetric Alfieri MV repair remains controversial. We sought to evaluate the reliability of this principle further by comparing TEE-acquired pressure gradients across each orifice in patients undergoing asymmetric, double-orifice repair., Methods: Routinely collected intraoperative, 2-dimensional and 3-dimensional TEE datasets acquired from 15 patients undergoing double-orifice MV repair were retrospectively reviewed and analyzed. Planimetered anterior lateral (AL) and posterior medial (PM) orifice areas were acquired from 3-dimensional TEE full volume datasets, by cropping the image to develop a short-axis view at the narrowest diastolic orifice cross-sectional area at the MV leaflet tips. Transmitral Doppler flow velocity values were measured through the AL and PM orifices. Peak and mean pressure gradients were calculated from the simplified Bernoulli equation at both orifices and were compared to each respective orifice for each patient., Results: The mean difference between the AL and PM orifice areas for each patient was statistically significant (0.72 ± 0.40 cm(2), P < 0.0001). The mean differences between the AL and PM parameters were also significant for peak velocity: 0.15 m/s, SD: 0.08, P < 0.0001; peak pressure gradients: 1.76 mm Hg, SD: 1.42, P < 0.0001; and mean pressure gradient: 1.04 mm Hg, SD: 0.93, P < 0.0001., Conclusions: The echocardiographic assessment of MV dysfunction after an Alfieri repair is important. Although the differences that we demonstrated between orifice areas and maximum velocities across the asymmetric orifices after a double-orifice MV repair are statistically significant, the corresponding difference in mean transorifice pressure gradient is not clinically relevant. Thus, either orifice can be interrogated with Doppler echocardiography for the determination of pressure gradients after double-orifice MV repair.

Uncorrected congenital interatrial septal defect can be found in nearly a third of all adults and are associated with significant morbidity, including pulmonary hypertension, right-heart failure, atrial arrhythmias, and paradoxical embolic stroke. With advancing technology, percutaneous closure of atrial septal defects has become a viable alternative to open surgical repair. In this review, the authors provide 3 examples in which 3-dimensional interventional transesophageal echocardiogram effectively provided more precise visualization of the dynamic surface and geometry of the atrial septum and related structures than 2-dimensional TEE, permitting accurate sizing and repair of the defects.

Procedures and interventions in the cardiac catheterization laboratory (CCL) and electrophysiology laboratory (EPL) are more complex and involve acutely ill patients. Safely caring for this growing patient population in the CCL and EPL is now a concern for all anesthesiologists and cardiologists. Anesthesiologists are uniquely trained to care for this complex patient population, allowing the cardiologist to focus on completing the interventional procedure successfully.

Purpose of Review: The cardiac catheterization lab has concerns for both patient care and for safety. As the cardiac catheterization lab continues to evolve, the demand for anesthesia services will certainly increase. The role of the anesthesiologist in the cardiac catheterization lab must be defined in this changing environment., Recent Findings: Procedures in the cardiac catheterization lab are more complex, take longer, and involve higher acuity patients. Many of these cases require general anesthesia rather than sedation, and require management of unstable hemodynamics. Knowledge of echocardiography and fluoroscopy is beneficial. Anesthesiologists should be active in developing sedation and practice management guidelines. Radiation exposure and safety is an important concern., Summary: The anesthesiologist is becoming an integral part of the cardiac catheterization lab team, and an important element in maintaining a high level of patient care with minimal complications in the evolving modern day cardiac catheterization lab.