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The purpose of this research is to investigate the effect of addition of surfactant and water in diesel and to make an emulsified fuel considering the needs for vehicle performance and its cleanest possible operation. The total surfactant concentration in each of the diesel-water emulsion samples studied (span 20, span 80, tween 20, tween 80) is fixed at 1% w/w. The water content is variable at 5–15% w/w and the diesel content is varied from 84 to 94% w/w. Among all the tested nonionic surfactants, tween 80 is found to prominently reduce the carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbon (HC), and nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions. Tween 20 reduced the NOx emission to a greater extent. Diesel emulsion with a fixed ratio of span 80 and tween 80 (1:1) efficiently reduced the overall emissions as compared to diesel alone. The developed diesel emulsion employed with nonionic surfactants clearly reduced the harmful engine emissions such as CO, HC, and NOx, signifying them as a future potential emulsifier in diesel fue...

Interpenetrating polymer network (IPN) beads of κ-Carrageenan and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (SCMC) containing Ibuprofen were prepared by water-in-water emulsion gelation process using AlCl 3 as a cross-linking agent. The impact of different formulation variables like polymer ratio, gelation time, concentration of crosslinker on physico-chemical parameters and in-vitro drug release were studied. The IPN beads were investigated through Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis. The prepared beads were slightly rough, folded spherical in shape and reflected improved drug encapsulation efficiency. Swelling ability and drug release of beads in alkaline medium was substantial as that of acidic medium. Formulations showed non-Fickian transport mechanism. The results of the study indicate that drug-loaded pH sensitive IPN beads could be used to diminish drug release in an acidic medium and to regulate the drug release in alkaline medium, which would help to minimize the gastric side effects of the model NSAID ibuprofen.

The objective of the present investigation was to design, develop, and evaluate the skin delivery of salbutamol sulfate from a drug-in-adhesive matrix type transdermal patch formulation. Initial formulation design and development experiments were conducted to optimize the formulation parameters before skin delivery in rats. The effects of two different types of pressure sensitive adhesives and permeation enhancers on skin transport of salbutamol sulfate across excised rat skin were investigated methodically. For ex-vivo skin permeation studies, the percutaneous absorption of salbutamol sulfate from a drug-in-adhesive matrix patch across excised rat skin were evaluated using a modified Franz-diffusion cell apparatus at a skin temperature (32°C). Further the fabricated adhesive matrix patches were also characterized by scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction study, and differential scanning calorimetry analyses. Drug containing adhesive matrix patches showed ...

The main objective of this research work was to fabricate and evaluate adhesive matrix-type transdermal patches of buflomedil hydrochloride, employing different ratios of pressure sensitive adhesives (PSAs) by solvent casting technique. The adhesive matrix-type transdermal patches were evaluated by their in vitro physicochemical properties such as thickness, moisture content, weight variation, drug content uniformity, etc. The effects of PSAs ratio, drug loading, and concentration of permeation enhancer were evaluated thoroughly. Ex vivo skin permeation studies with kinetic modeling of adhesive matrix patches were systematically evaluated. Based on the above observations, the best optimized buflomedil hydrochloride-loaded adhesive matrix-type transdermal patch was further characterized by scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction study, and differential scanning calorimetry analyses. Drug containing adhesive matrix patches showed sustained release property wi...

The current study evaluated the stability potential of a transdermal patch composed of eserine and pralidoxime chloride for prophylaxis against (±)-anatoxin A poisoning. The drug combinations were fabricated in an adhesive matrix system supported by a backing membrane and attached to a temporary release liner. Stability testing of the optimized formulation was established for 6 months under accelerated study conditions as per International Conference on Harmonisation guidelines. Results obtained after 6 months showed that the optimized patch formulation was stable with respect to drugs content, pH, diffusion, visual inspection, and other analytical parameters.

The structure of micelles formed by a four component water-in-oil nonionic microemulsion surfactant polyoxyethene (20) sorbitan monoleate (Tween 80), sorbitan monolaurate (Span 20) at ethyl oleate and deuterated water interface have been probed by small-angle neutron scattering (SANS). The total surfactant concentration in each of the samples studied (Tween 80: Span 20) is fixed at 3:2. The deuterated water content is variable at 5–60% w/w. The experimental SANS data from all the seven samples are fit well by spherical micelles interacting with hard sphere potential. Increased deuterated water leads to spherical to lamellar and rod-like micelle geometry featured in the SANS scattering data. The observed change in micelle geometry supports the characterization of phase transition between the self-assembled micelles of the nonionic microemulsion.

Polymers have always been valuable excipients in conventional dosage forms, also have shown excellent performance into the parenteral arena, and are now capable of offering advanced and sophisticated functions such as controlled drug release and drug targeting. Advances in polymer science have led to the development of several novel drug delivery systems. Interpenetrating polymer networks (IPNs) have shown superior performances over the conventional individual polymers and, consequently, the ranges of applications have grown rapidly for such class of materials. The advanced properties of IPNs like swelling capacity, stability, biocompatibility, nontoxicity and biodegradability have attracted considerable attention in pharmaceutical field especially in delivering bioactive molecules to the target site. In the past few years various research reports on the IPN based delivery systems showed that these carriers have emerged as a novel carrier in controlled drug delivery. The present review encompasses IPNs, their types, method of synthesis, factors which affects the morphology of IPNs, extensively studied IPN based drug delivery systems, and some natural polymers widely used for IPNs.

Interpenetrating polymer network (IPN) hydrogel microspheres of xanthan gum (XG) based superabsorbent polymer (SAP) and poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) were prepared by water-in-oil (w/o) emulsion crosslinking method for sustained release of ciprofloxacin hydrochloride (CIPRO). The microspheres were prepared with various ratios of hydrolyzed SAP to PVA and extent of crosslinking density. The prepared microspheres with loose and rigid surfaces were evidenced by scanning electron microscope (SEM). Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis confirmed the IPN formation. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) study was performed to understand the dispersion nature of drug after encapsulation. The in vitro drug release study was extensively evaluated depending on the process variables in both acidic and alkaline media. All the formulations exhibited satisfactory physicochemical and in vitro release characteristics. Release data indicated a non-Fickian trend of drug release from the formulations. Based on the results, this study suggest that CIPRO loaded IPN microspheres were suitable for sustained release application.

Ocular drug delivery system always remained associated with lots of difficulties and faced issues of poor drug absorption and poor bioavailability. Timolol maleate is a nonspecific beta blocker used for reduction of elevated intraocular pressure in glaucoma. Timolol maleate is absorbed systemically and is contraindicated in asthmatic patients. This study is focused to deliver Timolol maleate by a water/oil microemulsion to extend the time of reduced intraocular pressure of glaucomatous rabbit's eye measured by using a Schoetz tonometer.The microemulsion is prepared by mixing the oily components with two nonionic surfactants, drug and water, and evaluated for the physicochemical, in vitro and in vivo parameters.The colloidal system demonstrates monodisperse distribution behavior and exhibits a uniform size distribution of finite width. In vitro drug release from microemulsion was found to follow Higuchi's pattern followed by a zero-order drug release by the emulsion. Ex vivo permeation through goat cornea revealed delayed release of Timolol maleate from microemulsion as compared with its aqueous solution. A reduction in intraocular pressure is seen lasting for 12 h compared to aqueous eye drop that lasted for only 5 h. CONCLUSION. In vivo reduction of intraocular pressure revealed a similar efficacy for once daily dosed 0.3% Timolol maleate in microemulsion formulation compared to 0.5% concentration in both microemulsion as well as aqueous formulation. The possible outcome of dose reduction will reduce the cardiovascular side effects generally reported with Timolol maleate eye drops.

Interpenetrating network (IPN) microbeads of sodium carboxymethyl locust bean gum (SCMLBG) and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (SCMC) containing diclofenac sodium (DS), a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug, were prepared by single water-in-water (w/w) emulsion gelation process using AlCl3 as cross-linking agent in a complete aqueous environment. Pharmacokinetic study of these IPN microbeads was then carried out by a simple and feasible high-performance liquid chromatographic method with UV detection which was developed and validated for the quantification of diclofenac sodium in rabbit plasma. The chromatographic separation was carried out in a Hypersil BDS, C18 column (250 mm × 4.6 mm; 5 m). The mobile phase was a mixture of acetonitrile and methanol (70:30, v/v) at a flow rate of 1.0 ml/min. The UV detection was set at 276 nm. The extraction recovery of diclofenac sodium in plasma of three quality control (QC) samples was ranged from 81.52% to 95.29%. The calibration curve was linear in the concentration range of 20-1000 ng/ml with the correlation coefficient (r(2)) above 0.9951. The method was specific and sensitive with the limit of quantification of 20 ng/ml. In stability tests, diclofenac sodium in rabbit plasma was stable during storage and assay procedure.

Interpenetrating network (IPN) beads of sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (SCMC) and sodium carboxymethyl xanthan (SCMX) containing diclofenac sodium (DS), a non steroidal anti-inflammatory drug were prepared by single water-in-water (w/w) emulsion gelation process using AlCl3 as the cross-linking agent. The influence of different formulation variables like polymer ratio, gelation time, concentration of cross-linking agenton in-vitro physico-chemical parameters and drug release studies were performed. The tailored IPN bead were analytically evaluated by Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier Transform Infra-red (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) analysis. IPN beads showed improved drug encapsulation efficiency along with enhanced intestinal drug release.

pH sensitive alginate-methyl cellulose blend hydrogel beads were prepared by single water-in-water (w/w) emulsion gelation method in a complete aqueous environment. The influence of different variables like total polymer concentration, gelation time and crosslinker content on in vitro physico-chemical characteristics and drug release rate in different medium were investigated. Drug loaded beads were evaluated through Fourier Transform Infra-red (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) analysis. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) picture of the dried beads suggested the formation of hemispherical particles. FTIR analysis indicated the stable nature of the drug in the blend hydrogel beads. DSC and XRD analysis revealed amorphous state of drug after encapsulation. The drug release profile in acidic medium was considerably less in compared in alkaline media. Formulations showed non-Fickian type transport mechanism. This trivalent ion crosslinked beads not only improves drug encapsulation efficiency but also enhances drug release in alkaline media.

Xanthan-gum-facilitated aspirin-loaded ethyl cellulose microparticles were prepared by multiple-emulsion solvent evaporation technology and the impact on variation in process parameters was investigated systematically. Scanning electron microscopy was performed to determine the surface morphology of the microparticles before and after dissolution study. X-ray diffraction (XRD), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis were performed, and yield value, swelling study, encapsulation efficiency, flow properties and dissolution profiles of the prepared formulations were evaluated. The size of microparticles varied between 247 and 410 μm, and 58.34% drug entrapment efficiency was achieved depending on the variation in process parameters. The drug release in acid solutions was slower than in alkaline solution. The microparticles provided extended drug release in alkaline dissolution medium, and the drug release was found to be controlled by Fickian diffusion mechanism. XRD and DSC analyses revealed the amorphous nature of drug in the microparticles. FTIR data indicated the stable character of the encapsulated drug in the microparticles. Thus, variation in process parameters showed a slow and prolonged release of aspirin in simulated intestinal fluid.

Non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are commonly prescribed medications to the geriatric patients for the treatment of arthritis and other painful disorders. The major side effects of NSAIDs are related to their effects on the stomach and bowels. The present study concerns assessment of the potential of liquidin situgelling emulsion formulations (emulgels) as patient compliant stomach specific sustained release carrier for the delivery of highly gastric irritant drug, Piroxicam. Emulgels were prepared, without using any emulgent, by mixing different concentrations of molten Gelucire 39/01 with low viscosity sodium alginate solution prepared in deionized water at 50°C. CaCO3was used as buoyancy imparting as well as crosslinking agent. Emulgels so prepared were homogenous, physically stable, and rapidly formed into buoyant gelled mass when exposed to simulated gastric fluid (SGF, pH 1.2). Drug release studies carried out in SGF revealed significant retardation (P<0.05) of Piroxicam release from emulgels compared to conventionalin situgelling formulations prepared without Gelucire 39/01. Pharmacodynamic studies carried out inalbino ratsrevealed significantly increased analgesic/anti-inflammatory response fromin situemulgels compared to conventionalin situgelling formulations. Further,in vivotoxicity studies carried out inalbino ratsrevealed no signs of gastric ulceration upon prolonged dosing.

Interpenetrating network (IPN) microbeads of sodium carboxymethyl locust bean gum (SCMLBG) and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (SCMC) containing diclofenac sodium (DS), a non steroidal anti-inflammatory drug were prepared by single water-in-water (w/w) emulsion gelation process using AlCl3 as cross-linking agent in a complete aqueous environment. The influence of different variables like total polymer concentration, gelation time and crosslinker content on in vitro physico-chemical characteristics and drug release rate in different media was investigated. Drug loaded microbeads were evaluated through Fourier transform infra-red (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analyses. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) micrograph of the beads suggested the formation of spherical particles. FTIR analysis indicated the stable nature of the drug in the blend microbeads. DSC and XRD analysis revealed amorphous state of drug after encapsulation. The drug release profile in acidic medium was considerably less in comparison to alkaline media. Formulations showed non-Fickian type transport mechanism. These tri-valent ion crosslinked beads not only improve drug encapsulation efficiency but also enhance drug release in phosphate buffer.

Initially interpenetrating network (IPN) hydrogel was prepared by dispersing xanthan gum (XG) into poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) backbone in an aqueous medium. Polyacrylic acid (PAA)/Poly (vinyl alcohol)-Xanthan gum IPN superabsorbent composite were fabricated well by dispersing the prepared IPN hydrogel in acrylic acid and polymerized in a complete aqueous environment through chemical cross-linking method. These superabsorbent polymeric composites were analytically evaluated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier Transform Infrared Spectra (FTIR), Thermal analysis (DSC) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. Simultaneously water absorbency, swelling kinetics and water retention abilities of this prepared superabsorbent polymeric composites were also investigated systematically.

Interpenetrating polymer network (IPN) hydrogel microspheres of sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (NaCMC) and poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) were prepared by water-in-oil (w/o) emulsion crosslinking method for oral controlled release delivery of a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug, diclofenac sodium (DS). The microspheres were prepared with various ratios of NaCMC to PVA, % drug loading and extent of crosslinking density at a fixed polymer weight. The prepared microspheres with loose and rigid surfaces were evidenced by scanning electron microscope (SEM). Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis confirmed the IPN formation. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) study was performed to understand the dispersion nature of drug after encapsulation. The in vitro drug release study was extensively evaluated depending on the process variables in both acid and alkaline media. All the formulations exhibited satisfactory physicochemical and in vitro release characteristics. Release data indicated a non-Fickian trend of drug release from the formulations. Based on the results of this study suggest that DS loaded IPN microspheres were suitable for oral controlled release application.

A novel poly(acrylic acid)/modified bentonite superabsorbent polymer (SAP) was synthesized through chemical crosslinking by a polymerization technique in a complete aqueous environment. This SAP was fabricated effectively by dispersing modified bentonite in a monomeric solution, using N,N′-methylenebisacrylamide as crosslinker and ammonium persulfate as initiator. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectral analysis showed that the XG chains had intercalated into bentonite sheets. The influence of crosslinking density and XG content were investigated. Results showed modified bentonite not only effectively increases water absorbency, but also improves water retention ability. This can be further used as a carrier matrix for the development of a drug delivery system.

In the present work Process validation of Ceftriaxone and Sulbactam as a dry powder injection was carried out. As the manufacturing process of dry powder injection is mainly dependent on blending process. In the present investigation, blending process was validated at different speeds of blender and the % assay was estimated by HPLC method. The octagonal blender was operated at 13, 17 and 20 rpm samples were taken from 10 different locations inside the blender. At 13 rpm there is much variation in assay results, at 17 rpm there is very less variation and also at 20 rpm there is slight variation occurs with reference to the acceptable ranges of assay {i.e. 90-110 %}. The obtained results clearly indicated that the optimum rpm is often necessary for the proper mixing of the drug. Therefore, 17 rpm was considered for the proper mixing at blending stage and it can be successfully employed to manufacture of dry powder injections for further manufacturing. The content uniformity of the net filled content was found to be in ± 5 % of average net content. Hence, it was concluded that process stands validated for the preparation of dry powder injection.

During recent years carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have been attracted by many researchers as a drug delivery carrier. CNTs are the third allotropic form of carbon-fullerenes which were rolled into cylindrical tubes. To be integrated into the biological systems, CNTs can be chemically modified or functionalised with therapeutically active molecules by forming stable covalent bonds or supramolecular assemblies based on noncovalent interactions. Owing to their high carrying capacity, biocompatibility, and specificity to cells, various cancer cells have been explored with CNTs for evaluation of pharmacokinetic parameters, cell viability, cytotoxicty, and drug delivery in tumor cells. This review attempts to highlight all aspects of CNTs which render them as an effective anticancer drug carrier and imaging agent. Also the potential application of CNT in targeting metastatic cancer cells by entrapping biomolecules and anticancer drugs has been covered in this review.

Gellan gum (GG) microbeads containing tranexamic acid (TA), an anti-fibrinolytic drug were prepared by a classic sol–gel transition induced by ionic crosslinking technique using aluminum chloride (AlCl3) as cross-linking agent. The influence of different formulation variables on in vitro physico-chemical parameters and drug release studies were performed systematically. The microbeads were evaluated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infra-red (FTIR) spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and high performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC) analysis. Particle size and swelling behavior of microbeads were also investigated. Microbeads showed improved drug encapsulation efficiency along with enhanced drug release. The in vivo studies exhibited sustained drug release in rabbits over a prolonged period after oral administration of these newly developed TA loaded GG microbeads. Based on the results of in vitro and in vivo studies in experimental animal model it was concluded that these microbeads provided intestinal specific controlled release of TA.

Objective. The objective of this work encompasses the application of the response surface approach in the development of buccoadhesive pharmaceutical wafers of Loratadine (LOR).Methods. Experiments were performed according to a 32factorial design to evaluate the effects of buccoadhesive polymer, sodium alginate (A), and lactose monohydrate as ingredient, of hydrophilic matrix former (B) on the bioadhesive force, disintegration time, percent (%) swelling index, and time taken for 70% drug release (t70%). The effect of the two independent variables on the response variables was studied by response surface plots and contour plots generated by the Design-Expert software. The desirability function was used to optimize the response variables.Results. The compatibility between LOR and the wafer excipients was confirmed by differential scanning calorimetry, FTIR spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. Bioadhesion force, measured with TAXT2i texture analyzer, showed that the wafers had a good bioadhesive property which could be advantageous for retaining the drug into the buccal cavity.Conclusion. The observed responses taken were in agreement with the experimental values, and Loratadine wafers were produced with less experimental trials, and a patient compliant product was achieved with the concept of formulation by design.

A superabsorbent composite was synthesized via polymerization in a complete aqueous environment. A polymeric composites was fabricated effectively by varying the concentration of natural gum and crosslinker. Reinforcing of the polymer chains with bentonite sheets was confirmed by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra. X-ray diffraction (XRD) revealed that bentonite was exfoliated and dispersed in the polymeric matrix. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and thermal analysis (TGA/DSC/DTA) were used to study the morphology and thermal stability of the composites, respectively. The effects of natural gum and crosslinker were investigated. Results showed that introducing organic-inorganic composites improved the swelling capability and water retention ability of the superabsorbent.

This work reports synthesis of pure Barium Titanate films on Printed Wiring Board at temperatures less than 10v C using hydrothermal synthesis technique. The films thus synthesized were found be crystalline with gain size of 80100 nm. The film thickness was found to be 300 nm and the capacitance density was in the order of 1 pF/cm*, resulting in a dielectric constant of 400. Films grown on thiier Ti foils (42 microns) showed almost 100 % yield. High frequency dielectric properties were obtained from s-parameter measurements using a multi-line calibration approach and were found to be stable up to 8 GHz. Low-cost and low temperature synthesis and stable dielectric properties in the GHz frequencies make them ideal candidates for integral capacitor applications.

Current printed wiring boards (PWBs) are all organic, the most common being epoxy-glass laminate FR-4 due to its cost effectiveness and overall perfonnance. However, for highdensity wiring (HDW) and assembly of flip-chips directly to the substrate without the use of underfill, substrate materials with low CTE and high elastic modulus are needed. Novel low CTE-high stiffness organic and inorganic hoards have been evaluated for flip-chip on board technology without the use of underfill. Standard liquid-liquid thermal shock tests were carried out on test vehicles with different board materials and failure modes were characterized. In-situ warpage and stress measurements were made to analyze the observed failure modes and to set guidelines for optimal board material selection. The effect of interlayer dielectric thickness on the package reliability has also been studied. The reliability test results are in accordance with the inferences from the in-situ warpage and stress measurements and it can be concluded that along with low CTE, high modulus is an inevitable substrate property requirement for flip-chip reliability without underfill in next-generation packages. This paper also presents Photostimulated Luminescence Spectroscopy (PSLS) and Raman Spectroscopy as non-destructive and direct techniques for the in-situ and residual stress measurement in microsystems and thus a powerful means for reliability assessment. Experimental results have also been supported by finite element models and analytical solutions.

Fabrication of high-k embedded capacitors on printed wiring board (PWB) is limited due to the inherent low-temperature process required for organic packaging. Current dielectrics for embedded capacitors are mostly organic with insufficient dielectric constant. Integration of high-k thin films on PWB is hindered by high processing temperature of ceramics. The goal of this work, is to develop low-cost/low-temperature, aqueous/non-aqueous based processes for embedded capacitors. Hydrothermal synthesis was used for synthesis of nanograined barium titanate films. Films synthesized at 95/spl deg/C on titanium foils yielded nanograined films (

Novel low CTE-high stiffness organic and inorganic boards were evaluated for flip-chip on board technology without underfill. Standard liquid-liquid thermal shock tests were carried out on test vehicles with different board materials and failure modes were characterized. In-situ warpage and stress measurements were made to analyze the observed failure modes and to set guidelines for optimal board material selection. The effect of interlayer dielectric thickness on the package reliability has also been studied. The reliability test results are in accordance with the inferences from the in-situ warpage and stress measurements and it can be concluded that along with low CTE, high modulus is an inevitable substrate property requirement for flip-chip reliability without underfill in next-generation packages. This paper also presents photostimulated luminescence spectroscopy as a nondestructive and direct technique for the in-situ stress measurement in microsystems and thus a powerful means for reliability assessment.

Electronic devices will increasingly rely on new materials with improved properties such as lower coefficient of thermal expansion preferably close to silicon, higher modulus, lower permittivity & loss, lower moisture absorption, better thermal conductivity, good dimensional stability, and more importantly reduced warpage particularly after the build-up process. The thermal properties of LCP's have led to increasing interest for the packaging community. This work deals with the evaluation of LCP's for future electronic packaging applications. LCP samples obtained from industry were analyzed using TA instruments. The samples with the properties best matched to the needs of future electronic packaging applications will be chosen based on the thermal analysis data presented for (i) fabrication of a base substrate using solely reinforced LCP, (ii) evaluating LCP for use as a carrier film, (iii) performing laser ablation techniques for via formation in the build up layers, and (iv) plating of the vias and the films for through hole Z-direction connections and X, Y, signal lines. In the present work, application of LCP as a dielectric layer for the system-on-package process has been evaluated. It is expected that the reinforced LCP films can also be utilized as a substrate material thereby providing the unique opportunity for superior compatibility between the substrate and the dielectric layer.

The role of warpage on future high density wiring requirements is investigated. These studies also show the impact of the gap between mask and the substrate arising out of warpage on the width of fine lines when vacuum cannot reduce the effect of warpage. For 100 micron wide lines, substrates with warpage greater then 50 microns are found to result in 30% error in the actual transferred pattern, while warpage greater than 200 microns results in the complete elimination of photoresist openings. The via-pad misalignment for a 300 mm substrate was measured to be 116 microns for FR4 substrate while the value is less than 25 microns for AlN. The % displacement, defined as the distance between the via center and pad center normalized with respect to the pad diameter, is hence more than 25% in case of a warped substrate, while it is found to be less than 10% for stiffer substrates. Hence, as feature size becomes smaller, accurate translation of mask features on to the substrate during photolithography will be limited by the warpage of the substrate and hence stiffer substrates are required to meet next-generation high-density wiring needs.

The integration of passive components (resistors, capacitors, inductors) into printed wiring boards (PWBs) has become a very significant part of electronic packaging technology. The biggest advantages of integrating passive components into a substrate are reduced assembly costs, minimized PWB real estates, reduced component dimensions, and improved electrical performance. One of the challenges of incorporating passives into a PWB is choosing a suitable material that satisfies both electrical and reliability needs. This research seeks to develop high dielectric constant (k) materials for integral capacitors and integral decoupling capacitors. More specifically, the goal of this work is to develop low viscosity, high k polymers for use in conjunction with high k ceramic materials, such as lead magnesium niobate, to form high k polymer-ceramic composites. Polymers with viscosity values ranging from 0.13 to 0.15 Pa/spl middot/s were formulated and characterized by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), dielectric analysis (DEA), and rheology. The polymers were mixed in different volume percentages with lead magnesium niobate-lead titanate (PMN-PT) ceramic powder by ball milling. DSC and DEA were used to characterize this composite material. Several methods for increasing dielectric constant were identified and implemented. Prototype capacitors were fabricated in order to measure k values for the composite materials. Dielectric constant values as high as 62 were achieved with samples containing relatively low volume percentages of PMN-PT ceramic powder.