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Because use and dosing of mood stabilizers (MSs) to treat bipolar disorder (BD) patients in Asia are not well documented, we examined prevalence and clinical correlates of treatment of Asian BD patients with relatively high doses of MSs.We conducted a pharmacoepidemiological survey across 13 Asian countries and territory in the Research on Asian Psychotropic Prescription Patterns Consortium. Mood stabilizer doses were converted to lithium carbonate equivalents (Li-eq milligrams per day). We compared relatively high (900 Li-eq mg/day) versus lower MS doses by bivariate comparisons, followed by multivariable linear regression to identify factors associated with higher MS doses.Among 1647 participants, MS dose averaged 584 (confidence interval, 565-603 Li-eq mg/d). Preliminarily, the 13.1% of the subjects given greater than 900 mg/d versus those given lower doses were younger, male, currently hospitalized, not currently depressed, and reported lifetime suicidal ideation; they also received relatively high doses of antipsychotics, received electroconvulsive treatment within the previous 12 months, and had greater ratings of tremors and sedation. By linear regression modeling, the mean proportion given high doses of MS was associated significantly and independently with higher doses of antipsychotics, younger age, male sex, hospitalized, more years of illness, country, higher body mass index, recent electroconvulsive treatment, and being in illness remission.Relatively high doses of MSs for BD are prevalent, but vary markedly among Asian countries, and are particularly likely among young males, ill for many years, and given high doses of antipsychotics or ECT. These characteristics allow better identification of patient profiles that can guide treatment of BD patients.

Objective Recently, rational polypharmacy approaches have been proposed, regardless of the lower risk and cost of monotherapy. Considering monotherapy as first-line treatment and polypharmacy as rational treatment, a balanced attitude toward polypharmacy is recommended. However, the high prevalence of polypharmacy led the Japanese government to establish a polypharmacy reduction policy. Based on this, the association between the policy and psychiatrists’ attitude toward polypharmacy has been under debate.Methods We developed an original questionnaire about Psychiatrists’ attitudes toward polypharmacy (PAP). We compared the PAP scores with the treatment decision-making in clinical case vignettes. Multiple regression analyses were performed to quantify associations of explanatory variables including policy factors and PAP scores. The anonymous questionnaires were administered to psychiatrists worldwide.Results The study included 347 psychiatrists from 34 countries. Decision-making toward polypharmacy was associated with high PAP scores. Multiple regression analysis revealed that low PAP scores were associated with the policy factor (β=-0.20, p=0.004). The culture in Korea was associated with high PAP scores (β=0.34, p

Empirical clinical studies have suggested that East Asian patients may require lower dosages of psychotropic drugs, such as antipsychotics, lithium, and antidepressants, than non-Asians. Both the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of a drug can affect the clinical response of an illness. The levels of antipsychotics used for the treatment of schizophrenia may affect patient clinical responses; several factors can affect these levels, including patient medication adherence, body weight (BW) or body mass index, smoking habits, and sex. The cytochrome P450 (CYP) system is a major factor affecting the blood levels of antipsychotics because many antipsychotics are metabolized by this system. There were notable genetic differences between people of different races. In this study, we determined the racial or ethnic differences in the metabolic patterns of some selected antipsychotics by reviewing therapeutic drug monitoring studies in East Asian populations. The plasma concentrations of haloperidol, clozapine, quetiapine, aripiprazole, and lurasidone, which are metabolized by specific CYP enzymes, were determined to be higher, under the same daily dose, in East Asian populations than in Western populations.

The blood level of antipsychotics affects clinical responses to the drug; it can be influenced by race and several individual factors. This study analyzed the therapeutic plasma concentrations (Cps) of paliperidone for both oral and long-acting injectable (LAI) formulations in clinical samples from Taiwanese patients.Patients diagnosed with schizophrenia and treated with either oral paliperidone for at least 4 weeks or LAI paliperidone for at least 6 months were enrolled. Blood samples were taken before the morning dose of oral paliperidone or the injection of LAI paliperidone to obtain the trough Cps.Among the patients in this study, 51 were taking oral paliperidone, and 26 were receiving LAI paliperidone. In the oral group, the mean Cps were 40.2 ± 19.8 ng/mL in patients taking 9 mg/d and 44.2 ± 15.9 ng/mL in those taking 12 mg/d. In the LAI group, the mean Cps were 32.9 ± 12.7 ng/mL in patients receiving 100 mg per 28 days and 49.9 ± 25.9 ng/mL in those receiving 150 mg per 28 days. The mean Cps per daily dose (Cps/DD) were 4.11 ± 1.99 ng/mL/mg in the oral group and 9.24 ± 3.78 ng/mL/mg in the LAI group.Under the suggested DD for oral and LAI paliperidone treatment, most Taiwanese patients with schizophrenia can reach the suggested therapeutic Cps range. Wide interindividual differences were observed in the Cps/DD for both the oral (7-fold) and LAI paliperidone (4-fold) groups. Compared with Western reports, no difference was observed in the body weight-adjusted Cps/DD.

Psychotic symptoms are rarely concurrent with the clinical manifestations of depression. Additionally, whether psychotic major depression is a subtype of major depression or a clinical syndrome distinct from non-psychotic major depression remains controversial. Using data from the Research on Asian Psychotropic Prescription Patterns for Antidepressants, we developed a machine-learning-algorithm-based prediction model for concurrent psychotic symptoms in patients with depressive disorders. The advantages of machine learning algorithms include the easy identification of trends and patterns, handling of multi-dimensional and multi-faceted data, and wide application. Among 1171 patients with depressive disorders, those with psychotic symptoms were characterized by significantly higher rates of depressed mood, loss of interest and enjoyment, reduced energy and diminished activity, reduced self-esteem and self-confidence, ideas of guilt and unworthiness, psychomotor agitation or retardation, disturbed sleep, diminished appetite, and greater proportions of moderate and severe degrees of depression compared to patients without psychotic symptoms. The area under the curve was 0.823. The overall accuracy was 0.931 (95% confidence interval: 0.897–0.956). Severe depression (degree of depression) was the most important variable in the prediction model, followed by diminished appetite, subthreshold (degree of depression), ideas or acts of self-harm or suicide, outpatient status, age, psychomotor retardation or agitation, and others. In conclusion, the machine-learning-based model predicted concurrent psychotic symptoms in patients with major depression in connection with the “severity psychosis” hypothesis.

OBJECTIVE Studies examining coprescription and dosages of mood stabilizers (MSs) with antipsychotics for psychotic disorders are infrequent. Based on sparse extant data and clinical experience, we hypothesized that adjunctive MS use would be associated with certain demographic (e.g., younger age), clinical factors (e.g., longer illness duration), and characteristics of antipsychotic treatment (e.g., multiple or high antipsychotic doses). METHODS Within an Asian research consortium focusing on pharmaco-epidemiological factors in schizophrenia, we evaluated rates of MS coprescription, including high doses (>1000 mg/day lithium-equivalents) and clinical correlates. RESULTS Among 3557 subjects diagnosed with schizophrenia in 14 Asian countries, MSs were coprescribed with antipsychotics in 13.6% (n = 485) of the sample, with 10.9% (n = 53) on a high dose. Adjunctive MS treatment was associated (all p < 0.005) with demographic (female sex and younger age), setting (country and hospitalization), illness (longer duration, more hospitalizations, non-remission of illness, behavioral disorganization, aggression, affective symptoms, and social-occupational dysfunction), and treatment-related factors (higher antipsychotic dose, multiple antipsychotics, higher body mass index, and greater sedation). Patients given high doses of MSs had a less favorable illness course, more behavioral disorganization, poorer functioning, and higher antipsychotic doses. CONCLUSIONS Schizophrenia patients receiving adjunctive MS treatment in Asian psychiatric centers are more severely ill and less responsive to simpler treatment regimens.

Network analysis provides a new viewpoint that explicates intertwined and interrelated symptoms into dynamic causal architectures of symptom clusters. This is a process called 'symptomics' and is concurrently applied to various areas of symptomatology.Using the data from Research on Asian Psychotropic Prescription Patterns for Antipsychotics (REAP-AP), we aimed to estimate a network model of extrapyramidal syndrome in patients with schizophrenia.Using data from REAP-AP, extrapyramidal symptoms of 1046 Asian patients with schizophrenia were evaluated using the nine items of the Drug-Induced Extrapyramidal Symptoms Scale (DIEPSS). The estimated network of the ordered-categorical DIEPSS items consisted of nodes (symptoms) and edges (interconnections). A community detection algorithm was also used to identify distinctive symptom clusters, and correlation stability coefficients were used to evaluate the centrality stability.An interpretable level of node strength centrality was ensured with a correlation coefficient. An estimated network of extrapyramidal syndrome showed that 26 (72.2%) of all possible 35 edges were estimated to be greater than zero. Dyskinesia was most centrally situated within the estimated network. In addition, earlier antipsychotic-induced extrapyramidal symptoms were divided into three distinctive clusters - extrapyramidal syndrome without parkinsonism, postural instability and gait difficulty-dominant parkinsonism, and tremor-dominant parkinsonism.Our findings showed that dyskinesia is the most central domain in an estimated network structure of extrapyramidal syndrome in Asian patients with schizophrenia. These findings are consistent with the speculation that acute dystonia, akathisia, and parkinsonism could be the risk factors of tardive dyskinesia.

Schizophrenia is a major mental disorder with a wide range of psychiatric symptoms. This study explored the structure of psychiatric symptoms of schizophrenia using network analysis in a large representative Asian sample based on a survey of clinical features and treatment used in schizophrenia patients across 15 countries/territories in Asia.Data on the demographic characteristics and psychiatric symptoms in schizophrenia patients were extracted from the dataset of the fourth Research on Asia Psychotropic Prescription for Antipsychotics (REAP-AP) project. The presence of the following psychiatric symptoms including delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior, negative symptoms, social/occupational dysfunction, verbal aggression, physical aggression, and affective symptoms were analyzed.A total of 3681 patients were included. The network analysis revealed that verbal aggression, hallucinations, and social/occupational dysfunction were the most central symptoms, while the connections between social/occupational dysfunction and verbal aggression, and between hallucinations and disorganized speech were the two strongest edges. There were significant gender differences in the network structure based on the network structure invariance test (M=0.74, P = 0.03) and invariant edge strength test. The positive correlation between verbal aggression and hallucinations was significantly stronger in the female network than that in the male network (P = 0.03), while a negative correlation between affective symptoms and negative symptoms was found in the female, but not the male network (P 0.01).Central symptoms including verbal aggression, hallucinations, and socio-occupational dysfunction should be addressed in developing targeted treatment strategy for schizophrenia patients.

This international guideline proposes improving clozapine package inserts worldwide by using ancestry-based dosing and titration. Adverse drug reaction (ADR) databases suggest that clozapine is the third most toxic drug in the United States (US), and it produces four times higher worldwide pneumonia mortality than that by agranulocytosis or myocarditis. For trough steady-state clozapine serum concentrations, the therapeutic reference range is narrow, from 350 to 600 ng/mL with the potential for toxicity and ADRs as concentrations increase. Clozapine is mainly metabolized by CYP1A2 (female non-smokers, the lowest dose; male smokers, the highest dose). Poor metabolizer status through phenotypic conversion is associated with co-prescription of inhibitors (including oral contraceptives and valproate), obesity, or inflammation with C-reactive protein (CRP) elevations. The Asian population (Pakistan to Japan) or the Americas’ original inhabitants have lower CYP1A2 activity and require lower clozapine doses to reach concentrations of 350 ng/mL. In the US, daily doses of 300–600 mg/day are recommended. Slow personalized titration may prevent early ADRs (including syncope, myocarditis, and pneumonia). This guideline defines six personalized titration schedules for inpatients: 1) ancestry from Asia or the original people from the Americas with lower metabolism (obesity or valproate) needing minimum therapeutic dosages of 75–150 mg/day, 2) ancestry from Asia or the original people from the Americas with average metabolism needing 175–300 mg/day, 3) European/Western Asian ancestry with lower metabolism (obesity or valproate) needing 100–200 mg/day, 4) European/Western Asian ancestry with average metabolism needing 250–400 mg/day, 5) in the US with ancestries other than from Asia or the original people from the Americas with lower clozapine metabolism (obesity or valproate) needing 150–300 mg/day, and 6) in the US with ancestries other than from Asia or the original people from the Americas with average clozapine metabolism needing 300–600 mg/day. Baseline and weekly CRP monitoring for at least four weeks is required to identify any inflammation, including inflammation secondary to clozapine rapid titration.

Highlights • The reproduction number had three peaks that came several days before the surge in COVID-19 cases. • There was a strong negative correlation between the kinematic viscosity of atmospheric air and the reproduction number. • One influencing factor is air temperature, which means the winter season could have an effect on viral transmission., Background The large number of people infected with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has plunged the world into fear in recent times. In Japan, 18,769 novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) cases have been reported as of June 30, 2020. This study aimed to assess whether cluster infection prevention is possible by evaluating the association between viral transmission and meteorological factors. Methods This study included 1263 people who were successively diagnosed with COVID-19 in Hokkaido, Japan between January 24, 2020 and June 30, 2020. After obtaining the values from the Japanese Meteorological Agency, the average scores of air temperature and humidity were calculated and compared with COVID-19 reproduction numbers, and the association between COVID-19 incidence or reproduction number and meteorological factors was assessed. Results The COVID-19 reproduction number in Hokkaido had three peaks that came several days before the surge in COVID-19 cases. The peaks are indicative of cluster infections. There was a strong negative correlation between the kinematic viscosity of atmospheric air and the reproduction number. Discussion and Conclusion Analysis of the reproduction number is important for predicting or suppressing COVID-19 infection clusters. The authors found a strong association between meteorological factors, such as kinematic viscosity of atmospheric air and the incidence of COVID-19 infection. Meteorological forecasts could provide foreknowledge about COVID-19 infection clusters in the future.

Purpose/Background: Clozapine clearance is influenced by sex, smoking status, ethnicity, co-prescription of inducers or inhibitors, obesity and inflammation. In 126 Beijing inpatients, we measured repeated trough steady-state serum concentrations and identified 4% (5/126) who were phenotypical poor metabolizers (PMs); none were ultrarapid metabolizers (UMs). They were defined as being 2 standard deviations beyond the means of total clozapine concentration/dose ratios stratified by sex and smoking. Using this definition, this study explores the prevalences of PMs and UMs using data from 4 already-published Asian samples. Three samples were East Asian (Beijing 2, Taipei and Seoul); one was from South India (Vallore). Findings/Results: The prevalence of phenotypical PMs ranged from 2-13%, but inflammation was not excluded. The prevalence was 7.3% (14/191) for Beijing 2, 11% (8/70) for Taipei, 13% (9/67) for Seoul, and 2% (2/101) for the Vellore sample. Five phenotypical PMs appeared to be associated with extreme obesity. Phenotypic UM prevalence ranged from 0-1.6%, but may be partly explained by lack of adherence. A Vellore phenotypic UM appeared to be associated with induction through high coffee intake. Implications/Conclusions: Around 10% of Asians may be clozapine PMs and may only need 50-150 mg/day to get therapeutic concentrations. Future studies combining gene sequencing for new alleles with repeated concentrations and careful control of confounders including inhibitors, inflammation and obesity should provide better estimations of the prevalence of phenotypic clozapine PMs across races. Clozapine UM studies require excluding potent inducers, careful supervision of compliance in inpatient settings and multiple serum concentrations.

Objective Regular surveys are important to monitor the use of psychotropic medications in clinical practice. This study examined the psychotropic prescription patterns in adult Asian schizophrenia patients based on the data of the Research on Asian Psychotropic Prescription (REAP) 2016 survey. Methods : This cross-sectional survey across 15 Asian countries/territories collected socio-demographic and clinical data with standardized procedures between March and May 2016. The socio-demographic and clinical characteristics of the patients were recorded with a standardized questionnaire. Results Altogether 3,537 adult patients with schizophrenia were consecutively screened and enrolled in the survey. The mean age was 38.66 ± 11.55 years and 59.7% of the sample were male. The mean dose of antipsychotics in chlorpromazine equivalents (CPZeq) was 424 ± 376 mg/day; 31.3% and 80.8% received first- and second- generation antipsychotics, respectively and 42.6% had antipsychotic polypharmacy, 11.7% had antidepressants, 13.7% had mood stabilizers, 27.8% had benzodiazepines, and 45.6% had anticholinergics. Conclusions Psychotropic prescription patterns in Asian adult patients with schizophrenia varied across countries. Regular surveys on psychotropic medications for schizophrenia are important to monitor pharmacotherapy practice in Asia.

Ketamine has emerged as a major substance of abuse worldwide. Evidence suggests a role of orexin system in reward processing, withdrawal, and stress response. It also interacts with the stress mechanisms of hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis to regulate drug-taking behavior. The study aimed to explore the relevance of orexin and stress hormones to chronic ketamine abuse. We enrolled 67 ketamine-dependent (KD) patients and 64 controls. The levels of orexin-A, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), and cortisol were measured at baseline, 1 week, and 2 weeks after ketamine discontinuation. KD patients were assessed by Beck Depression Inventory, Beck Anxiety Inventory, and Visual Analogue Scale for ketamine craving at baseline. Compared with the controls, KD patients had significantly lower orexin-A (0.65 ± 0.12 vs. 0.74 ± 0.10 ng/mL, p

Background: Although cannabis use has been linked with schizophrenia in a dose–response pattern, to our knowledge, the relationship between cannabis and schizophrenia has rarely been report...

Schizophrenia is a chronic, debilitating psychiatric disorder with a high risk of relapse. Nonadherence to medication is a significant contributor to poor outcomes. Although long-acting injectable (LAI) antipsychotics prevent the relapse of schizophrenia, several factors present obstacles to the use of LAI antipsychotics, and clinical guidelines for LAI antipsychotics remain limited. To provide clinical recommendations, the Taiwanese Society of Biological Psychiatry and Neuropsychopharmacology (TSBPN) developed consensus statements for the effectiveness, target populations, initiation timing, and particular clinical situations for the use of LAI antipsychotics in patients with schizophrenia.After a systematic literature review, a working group drafted consensus statements for the selected clinical topics and determined the levels of evidence-based recommendation based on the latest World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry grading system. A scientific committee evaluated the draft statements and decided the final recommendations regarding the grades by anonymous voting after incorporating clinical experience and practice into the evidence from research.The TSBPN proposed ten consensus statements for the application of LAI antipsychotics. The current evidence supported that LAI antipsychotics could be a treatment option for all schizophrenia patients, including first-episode patients. LAI antipsychotics could be initiated both during an acute psychotic episode and when patients are stable. The consensus also gave recommendations for particular clinical situations with insufficient scientific data, such as for use in elderly or adolescent patients, patients with treatment-resistant schizophrenia, and breakthrough psychosis, and strategies to assist patients/caregivers with decision making.The consensus statements developed by the TSBPN provide evidence-based clinical recommendations and could give clinicians more confidence when prescribing LAI antipsychotics to treat schizophrenia, thereby improving treatment outcomes.

Drug-induced extrapyramidal syndrome (EPS) remains a major problem in clinical psychiatry. This study aimed to examine the factor structure of drug-induced extrapyramidal symptoms observed in patients with schizophrenia and assessed using the Drug-Induced Extrapyramidal Symptoms Scale (DIEPSS). The participants were 1,478 patients with a diagnosis of schizophrenia whose EPS was assessed using the DIEPSS in India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, and Taiwan in the 2016 REAP AP-4 study. The records of the participants were randomly divided into two subgroups: the first for exploratory factor analysis of the eight DIEPSS items and the second for confirmatory factor analysis. The factor analysis identified three factors: F1 (sialorrhea, akathisia, dystonia, and dyskinesia), F2 (gait and bradykinesia), and F3 (muscle rigidity and tremor). The present results suggest that the eight individual items of the DIEPSS could be composed of three different mechanisms: central dopaminergic mechanisms with the pathophysiology other than acute parkinsonism (F1), acute parkinsonism observed during action (F2), and acute parkinsonism observed at rest (F3).

Background: We characterized the heterogeneity and risk factors of cognitive decline in bipolar disorder (BD), and their magnitude of associations with subjective daily functions. Methods: Recruited BD patients (N=127) were followed for an average of 6.5 years. Baseline intelligence quotient was measured, and Brief Assessment of Cognition in Affective Disorders (BAC-A) was used to assess cognition at follow-up. We evaluated current functions with World Health Organization Disability Assessment Schedule 2.0. Clinical and sociodemographic factors were compared between BD patients with and without longitudinal cognitive decline and revealed the independent risk factors through multiple regression analysis. Correlations between specific cognitive domains and functional outcomes were examined in subgroups of BD.Results: Overall, 32.3% of BD patients showed longitudinal cognitive decline. In cognitive decline group, all cognitive domains of BAC-A were significantly worsened. Baseline independent risk factors for cognitive decline were older age, body mass index >25, and manic episode density during the disease course. After the age of 40 years, a steeper cognitive change was observed in the cognitive decline group. Housekeeping dysfunction was the most sensitive function related to diverse cognitive impairment in cognitive decline group. The correlations between cognitive domains and functional outcomes differed between patients with and without cognitive decline.Conclusions: This study characterized cognitive heterogeneity longitudinally in BD, as the foundation to facilitate future genetic and biological studies for BD subtypes. Manic episode density and overweight are important risk factors for cognitive decline; therefore, we suggested further interventions should target on relapse prevention and controlling body weight.

Objectives: Both superoxide dismutase 2 gene (SOD2), encoding a free radical scavenger, and dystrobrevin-binding protein 1 gene (DTNBP1), a candidate gene for schizophrenia, have been implicated in methamphetamine (METH) psychosis. In this study, we intended to compare the distribution of those two genes between METH users with and without psychosis and to evaluate whether the length of time of METH exposure influenced such relationship. Methods: The study sample consisted of 84 cases of patients with METH-induced psychosis and 187 controls (METH users without psychosis). Five single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in SOD2 and three SNPs in DTNBP1 were genotyped. We did both single-locus and haplotype analyses, and adjusted for multiple comparisons with an effective number of markers, and multivariable logistic regression analyses for adjusting for age, sex, and duration of METH use. Results: None of the individual SNPs were associated with METH-induced psychosis after adjustment for multiple comparisons. In the subgroup analysis, both rs4880 and rs2855116 in SOD2 were significantly associated with prolonged METH-induced psychosis (p < 0.01 and p < 0.01, respectively). Under the assumption of a codominant model, the CC genotype of rs4880 was significantly associated with METH-induced psychosis after adjustments for age, sex, and the duration of METH use (p < 0.01). This association was not supported by the haplotype analyses or gene–gene interactions between SOD2 and DTNBP1. Conclusion: Functional C-allele of rs4880 in SOD2 was associated with the prolonged subtype of METH-induced psychosis in Taiwanese population. Oxidative stress mechanisms show a rôle in the development of METH-induced psychosis.

Introduction Patterns of clinical use of long-acting injectable (LAI) antipsychotic drugs in many countries, especially in Asia, for treatment of patients diagnosed with chronic psychotic disorders including schizophrenia are not well established. Methods Within an extensive research consortium, we evaluated prescription rates for first- (FGA) and second-generation antipsychotic (SGA) LAI drugs and their clinical correlates among 3557 subjects diagnosed with schizophrenia across 15 Asian countries and region. Results Overall, an average of 17.9% (638/3557; range: 0.0%-44.9%) of treated subjects were prescribed LAI antipsychotics. Those given LAI vs orally administered agents were significantly older, had multiple hospitalizations, received multiple antipsychotics more often, at 32.4% higher doses, were more likely to manifest disorganized behavior or aggression, had somewhat superior psychosocial functioning and less negative symptoms, but were more likely to be hospitalized, with higher BMI, and more tremor. Being prescribed an FGA vs SGA LAI agent was associated with male sex, aggression, disorganization, hospitalization, multiple antipsychotics, higher doses, with similar risks of adverse neurological or metabolic effects. Rates of use of LAI antipsychotic drugs to treat patients diagnosed with schizophrenia varied by more than 40-fold among Asian countries and given to an average of 17.9% of treated schizophrenia patients. We identified the differences in the clinical profiles and treatment characteristics of patients who were receiving FGA-LAI and SGA-LAI medications. Discussion These findings behoove clinicians to be mindful when evaluating patients' need to be on LAI antipsychotics amidst multifaceted considerations, especially downstream adverse events such as metabolic and extrapyramidal side effects.

AIM The change in psychiatric diagnoses in clinical practice is not an unusual phenomenon. The interchange between the diagnoses of schizophrenic disorders and bipolar disorders is a major clinical issue because of the differences in treatment regimens and long-term prognoses. In this study, we used a nationwide population-based sample to compare the diagnostic consistency and interchange rate between schizophrenic disorders and bipolar disorders. METHODS In total, 25 711 and 11 261 patients newly diagnosed as having schizophrenic disorder and bipolar disorder, respectively, were retrospectively enrolled from the Psychiatric Inpatient Medical Claims database between 2001 and 2005. We followed these two cohorts for 7 years to determine whether their diagnoses were consistent throughout subsequent hospitalizations. The interchange between the two diagnoses was analyzed. RESULTS In the schizophrenic disorder cohort, the overall diagnostic consistency rate was 87.3% and the rate of change to bipolar disorder was 3.0% during the 7-year follow-up. Additional analyses of subtypes revealed that the change rate from schizoaffective disorder to bipolar disorder was 12.0%. In the bipolar disorder cohort, the overall diagnostic consistency rate was 71.9% and the rate of change to schizophrenic disorder was 8.3%. CONCLUSION Changes in the diagnosis of a major psychosis are not uncommon. The interchange between the diagnoses of schizophrenic disorders and bipolar disorders might be attributed to the evolution of clinical symptoms and the observation of preserved social functions that contradict the original diagnosis. While making a psychotic diagnosis, clinicians should be aware of the possibility of the change in diagnosis in the future.

Objective: Little is known about the prescription pattern of psychotropic drugs for patients with schizophrenia in Pakistan. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the characteristic features of psychotropic drug prescriptions for patients with schizophrenia in Pakistan. Methods: Three centers in Pakistan participated in a large scale collaborative study known as Research on Asian Prescription Pattern (REAP). The 2016 REAP survey included centers from 15 countries in Asia and used a unified research protocol. The design of the study was quantitative and of descriptive epidemiology. Analysis was made on the data collected from three centers i.e., Lahore, Karachi and Islamabad. The data collected in Pakistan were compared with those from other Asian countries. The details of REAP were presented on the homepage of REAP (http://www.REAP.Asia). Results: From Pakistan, 298 patients were included. Patients with schizophrenia in Pakistan received higher rate of antipsychotic polypharmacy and a higher rate of co-prescription of mood stabilizers and anxiolytics when compared with participants from other South Asian countries (India and Bangladesh). Conclusion: The main findings of the study were that a majority of the patients were prescribed antipsychotic polypharmacy drugs in Pakistan. Insufficient training on the use of psychotropic drugs and a lack of treatment guideline are considered to be the major contributing factors. Further education and training on the proper use of psychotropic drugs are recommended to psychiatrists in Pakistan. The guidelines on pharmacotherapy for patients with schizophrenia should also be developed and promoted in Pakistan.

Background Research on Asian Prescription Pattern (REAP) is the largest and the longest lasting international collaborative research in psychiatry in Asia since 2001. At present, four studies on antipsychotics in schizophrenia, two antidepressants, one bipolar disorder and one mood disorder were completed. Previous studies have examined the use of Long-acting Injectable (LAI) antipsychotic in patients with schizophrenia and revealed major differences across countries. The aim of the study is to investigate the prescription trend of LAI antipsychotic use in four REAP schizophrenia surveys. Methods We analyzed the results from four times of REAP studies (AP1 to AP4, 2001, 2004, 2009 and 2016), to compare the trend of LAI prescriptions rates in China, Hong Kong, Japan, Korea, Singapore, and Taiwan, and also the rate of LAI use among 15 Asian countries in AP4. Results A total of 10505 patients were analyzed, with an average rate of 14.6% of patients received LAI antipsychotic treatment. For comparison of AP1 to AP4, there was a wide variation in the rate of LAI use among the six countries, with the highest prescription rate in Singapore (68.1%) and the lowest in Korea (1.6 %). Korean patients received no LAIs treatment in the first two surveys, and the rates in China and Japan were also very low. While in Hong Kong and Singapore, the rates were much higher. In AP4 survey, India, Malaysia, Thailand, Pakistan and Sri Lanka have a higher rate of LAI use, while in Indonesia, Myanmar, the rate is much lower. Vietnam does not use LAI at all. The prescription trend was also diverse, which increased in Korea and Japan and decreased in China, Hong Kong and Singapore. The overall prescription trend of LAI was in decrease. Besides, when analyzing cases with only using second generation antipsychotics, the usage of LAI was increased. Discussion Previous studies identified several factors associated with prescription of LAI, including demographic and clinical characteristics of patients, patients’ and physicians’ attitude towards LAI, availability of LAI, insurance coverage and related cultural factors. The prescription trend of first generation LAI was decreased in most of the six countries; on the other hand, second generation LAI usages maintain steady level and even slightly increased. In conclusion, LAI antipsychotic is still underuse in Asia, especially in some countries such as Korea, China, Japan, Indonesia and Myanmar. Various factors that influenced the prescription rate of LAI antipsychotic should be addressed further.

OBJECTIVE. We evaluated the construct validity (i.e., unidimensionality and convergent validity) and Rasch reliability of the 20-item Comprehensive Occupational Therapy Evaluation Scale (COTES) in people with schizophrenia. METHOD. Retrospective chart review was used to collect COTES data from 505 inpatients with schizophrenia. For construct validity, we first examined unidimensionality of each of the three COTES subscales using Rasch analysis. After unidimensionality was supported, we examined convergent validity using Pearson’s r and Rasch reliability of the individual subscales. RESULTS. After deleting two misfitting items, the remaining items (i.e., the COTES–18) showed unidimensionality. Infit and outfit mean squares were 0.73–1.25. Moderate correlations were found among the three COTES–18 subscales (rs = .57–.71). The Rasch reliabilities of the three subscales were .83–.92. CONCLUSION. The COTES–18 has sufficient construct validity and reliability to assess three specific dimensions of behavior affecting occupational performance in people with schizophrenia.

Ketamine is an anesthetic derivative of phencyclidine with dissociative, analgesic, and psychedelic properties. It is extensively used as an anesthetic drug in surgical procedures in pediatric, obstetric, and geriatric patients, as well as in veterinary settings. Since its approval for clinical use, the misuse and abuse of ketamine have been reported in scientific journals and in popular media globally, particularly in the last two decades. It has been used as a common club drug in dance, rave, and squat party scenes. Owing to its unique pharmacological properties, ketamine has been used as an antidepressant for the treatment of resistant depression. However, a long-term use of high doses of ketamine leads to numerous physical and psychological negative effects, such as abdominal pain, urinary system disorder, dependence/tolerance/withdrawal, cognitive impairment, psychosis, and depression. At present, no effective pharmacotherapy for managing compulsive drug-seeking behavior in patients with ketamine use disorder is available. Treatment that incorporates regular urine screening in addition to medications for psychiatric symptoms and craving may present favorable results.

Aim We aimed to estimate the network structures of depressive symptoms using network analysis and evaluated the geographic regional differences in theses network structures among Asian patients with depressive disorders. Methods Using data from the Research on Asian Psychotropic Prescription Patterns for Antidepressants (REAP-AD), the network of the ICD-10 diagnostic criteria for depressive episode was estimated from 1174 Asian patients with depressive disorders. The node strength centrality of all ICD-10 diagnostic criteria for a depressive episode was estimated using a community-detection algorithm. In addition, networks of depressive symptoms were estimated separately among East Asian patients and South or Southeast Asian patients. Moreover, networks were estimated separately among Asian patients from high-income countries and those from middle-income countries. Results Persistent sadness, fatigue, and loss of interest were the most centrally situated within the network of depressive symptoms in Asian patients with depressive disorders overall. A community-detection algorithm estimated that when excluding psychomotor disturbance as an outlier, the other nine symptoms formed the largest clinically meaningful cluster. Geographic and economic variations in networks of depressive symptoms were evaluated. Conclusion Our findings demonstrated that the typical symptoms of the ICD-10 diagnostic criteria for depressive episode are the most centrally situated within the network of depressive symptoms. Furthermore, our findings suggested that cultural influences related to geographic and economic distributions of participants could influence the estimated depressive symptom network in Asian patients with depressive disorders.

Background and Objective: Antipsychotic polypharmacy (APP) is a controversial topic in the treatment of older adults with schizophrenia. The objective of this study was to examine the use of APP in older adult Asian patients with schizophrenia and its associated demographic and clinical factors. Methods: This study was based on the fourth survey of the consortium known as the Research on Asian Psychotropic Prescription Pattern for Antipsychotics. Fifteen Asian countries/territories participated in this survey, including Bangladesh, Mainland China, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Myanmar, Pakistan, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand, and Vietnam. Basic demographic and clinical characteristics were collected using a standardized data collection form. Results: Among the 879 older adults with schizophrenia included in the survey, the rate of APP was 40.5%. Multiple logistic regression analysis revealed that higher antipsychotic doses ( P < .001, odds ratio [OR] = 1.003, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.002-1.003), longer duration of illness ( P = .02, OR = 1.845, 95% CI: 1.087-3.132), and the prescription of anticholinergics ( P < .001, OR = 1.871, 95% CI: 1.329-2.635), second-generation antipsychotics ( P = .001, OR = 2.264, 95% CI: 1.453-3.529), and first-generation antipsychotics ( P < .001, OR = 3.344, 95% CI: 2.307-4.847) were significantly associated with APP. Conclusion: Antipsychotic polypharmacy was common in older adult Asian patients with schizophrenia. Compared to the results of previous surveys, the use of APP showed a declining trend over time. Considering the general poor health status of older patients with schizophrenia and their increased risk of drug-induced adverse events, the use of APP in this population needs careful consideration.

We conducted a cross-sectional study to compare the subjective experiences and clinical effects of first-generation long-acting injectable (FGA-LAI) antipsychotics with those of risperidone long-acting injectables (RIS-LAIs) in 434 schizophrenia patients. Compared with the RIS-LAI group, the patients treated with FGA-LAIs had a significantly longer duration of illness and LAI treatment and were older. Our results suggest that patients treated with FGA-LAI have more satisfactory subjective experiences compared with patients treated with RIS-LAI and that both FGA-LAI and RIS-LAI treatments can prevent relapses and hospitalization. Additional longitudinal studies determining the long-term benefits of RIS-LAI are warranted.

OBJECTIVE Long-term follow-up data regarding the association between methamphetamine use and cardiovascular and cerebrovascular complications are scarce. We investigated the risk of complications in methamphetamine users over a decade. METHODS A total of 1,315 inpatients treated for methamphetamine use were recruited from the Psychiatric Inpatient Medical Claims database in Taiwan between January 1, 1997, and December 31, 2000, and matched with a population proxy comparison group at a ratio of 1:4 through propensity score matching. All patients were monitored for any incident complication until December 31, 2010. Cox proportional hazards model was used to estimate the risk of ICD-9-CM cardiovascular diseases and stroke events. RESULTS The patients were mostly male, and approximately half were younger than 30 years. The methamphetamine cohort had higher incidences of cardiovascular diseases and stroke events than the comparison cohort (87.5/10,000 vs 55.3/10,000 person-years, P < .001) and was significantly associated with an increased risk of the complications (hazard ratio [HR] = 1.55, P < .001), particularly arrhythmia (HR = 1.92, P = .014) and hemorrhagic stroke (HR = 2.09, P = .001). The risk of cardiovascular sequelae was more significant in younger patients (< 30 y) (HR = 2.22, P = .001), whereas the risk of stroke events was higher among the older patients (≥ 30 y) (HR = 1.86, P = .001). CONCLUSIONS Methamphetamine use is significantly associated with a risk of subsequent cardiovascular and cerebrovascular complications. Age appears to be an effect modifier for the risk estimation.

Ketamine is an anesthetic derivative of phencyclidine (PCP; 'Angel dust') with dissociative, analgesic and psychedelic properties. Ketamine has become a popular recreational drug of abuse in many parts of the world in recent years. The preclinical studies demonstrate the reinforcing effects of ketamine and long-term ketamine abuse induces a delayed and persistent upregulation of dopamine system. In humans, there have been concerns about its liability to development of addiction. The dilemma of mental professionals in managing the treatment-seeking ketamine abusers comes from a lack of effective pharmacotherapy. Limiting evidence showed that lamotrigine, which inhibits glutamate release, is effective to reduce cocaine craving. We propose that lamotrigine might be beneficial for managing ketamine use disorder clinically. We also reported one case of ketamine use disorder who experienced a great reduction in craving and ketamine use after taking lamotrigine. Although the mechanisms underlying neuroadaptation and reward related to ketamine are not entirely clear, future clinical trials are needed to advance our understanding of the benefit yielded by lamotrigine to treat ketamine use disorder.

Objective: In this study, we intended to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of switching to lurasidone in patients with schizophrenia and to get clinical experiences of real-world practice in those who showed suboptimal therapeutic effect and/or intolerability to lurasidone in Taiwan. Methods: We enrolled adult patients (aged 20–75 years) with schizophrenia who had been receiving antipsychotic medications but still continued to show mild-to-moderate symptoms or intolerability, for switching switch to an open-label lurasidone 40–160 mg daily for six weeks. The primary end point of the study was to assess the time to treatment failure, defined as any occurrence of insufficient clinical response, worsen underlying symptoms, or discontinuation due to adverse events. Secondary efficacy measures of the study included decreased scores in the positive and negative syndrome scale (PANSS) total and the clinical global impression-severity scale.(CGI-S), as well as increased clinical global impression-improvement scale (CGI-I). Safety measures included occurrences of treatment-emergent adverse events (TEAEs), abnormal vital signs, Electrocardiogram (ECG), and laboratory parameters. Results: We enrolled 54 patients with 51 completing the study. One patient terminated early due to adverse events and two patients had insufficient therapeutic efficacy. Mean ± standard deviation (SD) time to treatment failure was 27.7 ± 13.1 days. Mean ± SD changes from baseline to six weeks on PANSS, CGI-S, and were −16.8 ± 14.4, −0.6 ± 0.59, and −1.1 ± 1.0, respectively . The most common TEAE was hyperprolactinemia. Furthermore, body weight was significantly decreased from baseline to the end of the study by 0.83 ± 1.96 kg (p < 0.01). Mean ± SD blood prolactin level also was significantly decreased from baseline to week 6 (48.7 ± 52.8 ng/dL vs. 23.9 ± 57.8 ng/dL, p < 0.001). Conclusion: After switching from another antipsychotic, patients with schizophrenia treated with lurasidone showed a low rate of treatment failure among patients in Taiwan. The safety profile is similar to that in previous published lurasidone studies.

Clozapine is an effective antipsychotic medication for treatment resistant schizophrenia and is widely used in Asian countries. This study investigated clozapine prescription patterns and their associated factors in Asian countries and territories based on the database of the Research on Asian Psychotropic prescription study (REAP) conducted in 2016. Demographic and clinical information of 3744 schizophrenia patients in 15 Asian countries and territories was collected with a standardized data collection form. In total, 18.4% of the sample received clozapine, ranging from 2.6% in Japan to 32.3% in Hong Kong. Binary logistic regression analysis revealed that higher antipsychotic dose (OR = 1.002, P

Our study aimed to analyze the clinical characteristics and psychotropic prescription patterns of a history of suicide attempts in South Koreans with bipolar disorder (BD), by using only Korean data from the Research on Asian Psychotropic Prescription Pattern for Bipolar disorder. The patterns of clinical characteristics and psychotropic drug use were compared among 53 patients with a history of suicide attempts and 297 without this history; the potential effects of confounding variables were adjusted with binary logistic analyses for discrete variables and analyses of covariance for continuous variables. After adjusting the effects of age, sex, duration of illness, and enrollment as an outpatient, patients with a history of suicide attempts were characterized by a significantly more prevalent depressive episode, lower prevalent remission state, lower levels of hemoglobin, and more use of antidepressants, anxiolytics, and hypnotics compared to those without lifetime suicide attempt. The inability to plan goal-directed behavior may be an intervening factor in the relationship between suicide attempts and depression in BD. Relatively low hemoglobin levels can be associated with manic episodes in patients with a history of suicide attempts and the use of antidepressants, anxiolytics, or hypnotics can be associated with suicide attempts in BD patients.