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To evaluate the ecosystem services of silvopastoral systems through grazing activities, an advanced Internet of Things (IoT) framework is introduced for capturing extensive data on the spatial dynamics of sheep and goat grazing. The methodology employed an innovative IoT system, integrating a Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) tracker and environmental sensors mounted on the animals to accurately monitor the extent, intensity, and frequency of grazing. The experimental results demonstrated the high performance and robustness of the IoT system, with minimal data loss and significant battery efficiency, validating its suitability for long-term field evaluations. Long Range (LoRa) technology ensured consistent communication over long distances, covering the entire grazing zone and a range of 6 km in open areas. The superior battery performance, enhanced by a solar panel, allowed uninterrupted operation for up to 37 days with 5-min interval acquisitions. The GNSS module provided high-resolution data on movement patterns, with an accuracy of up to 10 m after firmware adjustments. The two-part division of the device ensured it did not rotate on the animals' necks. The system demonstrated adaptability and resilience in various terrains and animal conditions, confirming the viability of IoT-based systems for pasture monitoring and highlighting their potential to improve silvopastoral management, promoting sustainable practices and conservation strategies. This work uniquely focuses on documenting the shepherd's role in the ecosystem, providing a low-cost solution that distinguishes itself from commercial alternatives aimed primarily at real-time flock tracking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Enterocytozoon bieneusi (E. bieneusi) is a parasite that infects both animals and humans. Understanding its distribution and genetic diversity is important for disease prevention and control. This study investigated the presence and genotypes of E. bieneusi in sheep and goats across five regions in Jiangsu Province, China. The research found that E. bieneusi was present in all tested regions, with infection rates varying from 23.65% to 42.81%. The overall infection rate was 36.51%. There was no significant difference in infection rates between sheep and goats or between animals of different ages, but health condition did affect infection rates. Six genotypes of E. bieneusi were identified, all belonging to a non-zoonotic group. These findings contribute to the better understanding and management of E. bieneusi infections in Jiangsu. In order to investigate the infection status and genotypes of Enterocytozoon bieneusi (E. bieneusi) in sheep and goats in Jiangsu Province, a total of 786 fresh fecal samples from 18 farms across five regions in Jiangsu were collected and examined for the presence of E. bieneusi, and the genotype of E. bieneusi was examined using nested-PCR and sequencing of the ribosomal internal transcribed spacer. The results showed that E. bieneusi was detected in the fecal samples of sheep and goats in all regions, with infection rates ranging from 23.65% to 42.81%. The overall infection rate was 36.51% (287/786). The infection rate of E. bieneusi showed no significant difference between sheep and goats, as well as among different ages of animals (p > 0.05), but showed a significant difference in sheep and goats with different health conditions (p < 0.05). The positive products were amplified and cloned and subjected to sequenced analysis. Six genotypes, BEB6, CHG2, CHG3, CHC8, CHG14, and COS-I, were found. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that the six genotypes belonged to Group 2, which had previously been described as a non-zoonotic group. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mycoplasma agalactiae (Ma) is considered the primary causative agent of contagious agalactia (CA) in sheep and goats, which causes severe losses to the small ruminant dairy industry. As early as 1816, it was thought that environmental factors played a role in pathogen maintenance in endemic areas. Specifically, recent studies hypothesized a vector role for arthropods in the epidemiology of disease. The aim of this study was to investigate the presence and anatomical localization of Ma in naturally infected Riphicephalus bursa ticks to better evaluate tick–pathogen interactions. Salivary glands and ovaries of confirmed Ma-positive R. bursa were analyzed to look for the Ma antigen using immunohistochemistry (IHC). IHC showed strong positivity to Ma in the cytoplasm of salivary cells as well as in cells from the ovary. Our work demonstrated for the first time the crossing of the tick midgut barrier by Ma and the subsequent infection of organs capable of spreading the infection, and this result represents an absolute novelty in disease-related knowledge. Our preliminary results provide conclusive evidence of the potential vector role represented by hard ticks in the epidemiology of CA. Further field and laboratory investigations are necessary to confirm the tick role in the transmission of clinical CA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Lung is susceptible and vulnerable to many infectious and non-infectious agents. From this, a large number of specific and nonspecific diseases conditions can be diagnosed. A cross-sectional study design was conducted from December 2022 to May 2023 on major pulmonary lesion of sheep and goat slaughtered at Dessie municipal abattoir with the objective of characterizing the pulmonary pathological lesions, and isolating and identifying potential aerobic bacteria and parasite from pneumonic lung. Materials and Methods A total of 420 (302 sheep and 118 goats) were examined for gross lung lesions and histopathological investigation using standard techniques. Additionally, detailed pathological investigation was conducted on purposively selected lung lesions. Besides, pneumonic lesions were subjected to routine bacteriological and parasitological analysis. Results The overall abattoir prevalence of pulmonary abnormalities in sheep and goat was 81.2% (341/420). The common gross lesions encountered were Pneumonia (55.5%), emphysema (7.1%), atelectasis (3.3%), Hydatid cyst (4.3%), congestion (2.4%), haemorrhage (3.1%), Anthracosis (0.9%), adhesion (0.7%), and Bronchoectasis (0.7%) respectively. Pneumonia, hydatidosis, and pulmonary emphysema were significantly associated (p

Simple Summary: Cryptosporidium spp. is recognized as an opportunistic zoonotic parasite that infects humans, wild and domestic animals, and is also a major cause of diarrhea in humans and various animals. Knowledge of the distribution and genetic diversity of pathogens can lay the foundation for the prevention and control of diseases. This study investigated the prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. infection and Cryptosporidium species in sheep and goats in Jiangsu province of China. The results may contribute to the prevention and control of Cryptosporidium infection in Jiangsu region. Sheep and goats serve as crucial hosts for Cryptosporidium spp. and are primarily responsible for its transmission via the fecal–oral route. This can result in symptoms such as lamb weight loss, diarrhea, and even fatalities, leading to significant economic losses. Currently, there is a lack of scholarly research investigating the prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. infection in sheep and goats specifically within Jiangsu province. This study collected fecal samples from sheep and goats, extracted their DNA, amplified target bands using nested PCR, sequenced the DNA, constructed a phylogenetic tree, and identified the genetic genotype. In total, 3 positive samples were identified out of 398 samples. Furthermore, the gene sequences of these samples exhibited significant homology with C. xiaoi in GenBank. The phylogenetic analysis revealed that the Cryptosporidium spp. parasites under investigation are phylogenetically related to C. xiaoi. Conducting epidemiological investigations and accurately identifying the species of Cryptosporidium spp. is of utmost importance not only for the mutton sheep farming industry in Jiangsu but also for the proactive safeguarding of human health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The growth rate and productive performance of animals depends on various factors among which the feeding system is one of the most important factors. The nutritional needs of animals on organic farms can be covered through three sources: grazing, food produced within the own holding and the purchase of additional feed. The purpose of the work is to follow the effect of sheep and goat feeding technologies through the installation according to the requirements of ecological agriculture of cultivated pastures, which can be used both for animal grazing and for obtaining fodder, either dry or fermented. A maximum production of fodder obtained in one's own holding must be one of the main objectives of the breeder, so the selected crops must be determined according to the real needs of the holding. To achieve these goals, farmers who practice organic farming rely on recognized agricultural practices, such as maintaining the welfare and health of the animal herd through free-range systems and modern knowledge, such as monitoring nutrient levels to track the optimal growth of animals at different stages of development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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To evaluate the ecosystem services of silvopastoral systems through grazing activities, an advanced Internet of Things (IoT) framework is introduced for capturing extensive data on the spatial dynamics of sheep and goat grazing. The methodology employed an innovative IoT system, integrating a Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) tracker and environmental sensors mounted on the animals to accurately monitor the extent, intensity, and frequency of grazing. The experimental results demonstrated the high performance and robustness of the IoT system, with minimal data loss and significant battery efficiency, validating its suitability for long-term field evaluations. Long Range (LoRa) technology ensured consistent communication over long distances, covering the entire grazing zone and a range of 6 km in open areas. The superior battery performance, enhanced by a solar panel, allowed uninterrupted operation for up to 37 days with 5-min interval acquisitions. The GNSS module provided high-resolution data on movement patterns, with an accuracy of up to 10 m after firmware adjustments. The two-part division of the device ensured it did not rotate on the animals’ necks. The system demonstrated adaptability and resilience in various terrains and animal conditions, confirming the viability of IoT-based systems for pasture monitoring and highlighting their potential to improve silvopastoral management, promoting sustainable practices and conservation strategies. This work uniquely focuses on documenting the shepherd’s role in the ecosystem, providing a low-cost solution that distinguishes itself from commercial alternatives aimed primarily at real-time flock tracking.

Mycoplasma agalactiae (Ma) is considered the primary causative agent of contagious agalactia (CA) in sheep and goats, which causes severe losses to the small ruminant dairy industry. As early as 1816, it was thought that environmental factors played a role in pathogen maintenance in endemic areas. Specifically, recent studies hypothesized a vector role for arthropods in the epidemiology of disease. The aim of this study was to investigate the presence and anatomical localization of Ma in naturally infected Riphicephalus bursa ticks to better evaluate tick–pathogen interactions. Salivary glands and ovaries of confirmed Ma-positive R. bursa were analyzed to look for the Ma antigen using immunohistochemistry (IHC). IHC showed strong positivity to Ma in the cytoplasm of salivary cells as well as in cells from the ovary. Our work demonstrated for the first time the crossing of the tick midgut barrier by Ma and the subsequent infection of organs capable of spreading the infection, and this result represents an absolute novelty in disease-related knowledge. Our preliminary results provide conclusive evidence of the potential vector role represented by hard ticks in the epidemiology of CA. Further field and laboratory investigations are necessary to confirm the tick role in the transmission of clinical CA.

Background: Ovine and caprine theileriosis is a tick-borne hemoprotozoan disease, caused by Theileria spp., responsible for heavy economic losses in terms of high mortality and morbidity rates. Diagnosis of ovine theileriosis is primarily based on clinical symptoms, microscopic screening of stained blood smears, and lymph node biopsy smears, but the limitations of these detection methods against Theileria spp. infection limits their specificity. Aim: To overcome these limitations, the current study reports the differential diagnosis of theileriosis through a blood smear examination and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in small ruminants from Pakistan. Methods: The study was conducted on 1,200 apparently healthy small ruminants (737 sheep and 463 goats). First, blood smears were screened for the presence of Theileria piroplasms in red blood cells. Second, PCR amplification based on 18S rRNA gene was performed by using primers specific to Theileria spp. Results: Out of the 1,200 samples of examined blood smears, 100 animals (8.33%) were found positive for Theileria species, which showed intra-erythrocytic bodies in the form of dot and comma shapes. Amplification of the isolated DNA from randomly collected blood samples of 737 sheep and 463 goats showed that an amplicon size of 1,098 bp was positive for Theileria spp. In total, 315 out of the 1,200 small ruminants examined in this study were found positive for Theileria spp. DNA through PCR amplification. Notably, out of the 885 blood samples negative by PCR amplification, only 15 blood samples were found positive by the blood smear test. Conversely, 230 blood samples that tested negative in the smear technique produced a specific band through PCR amplification. Overall, the sensitivity and specificity rates were 26.98% and 98.31% for the blood smear method and 73.01% and 100% for the PCR assay, respectively. Conclusion: Our finding suggests that PCR is the gold standard method compared to the conventional method of smear examination for the diagnosis of ovine and caprine theileriosis in Pakistan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mycoplasmosis is one of the economically important diseases in small ruminants. Mycoplasma affects respiratory system predominantly apart from synovial joints, udder and mucus membrane bearing surface. In the current study, a total of 514 samples consisting of 465 nasal swabs, 18 lung tissues, 16 milk, 11 synovial fluids, 3 ear swabs, and one fetal fluid were subjected for isolation of Mycoplasma in PPLO broth and PPLO agar. Inoculated samples were incubated at 37°C for 24-48 h under 5% CO2, until turbidity and colour change was observed. Broth cultures were also subjected for Mycoplasma genus specific and species specific PCR. Of the 514 samples that were cultured, 32 (6.22%) produced characteristic 'fried egg' microcolonies on the agar surface. Of the 32 isolates, 21 were M. ovipneumoniae, 7 were M. arginini and 4 unidentified mycoplasma species. Seventy five (14.59%) samples were positive for genus specific PCR. By species specific PCR, 21 (28%) samples were identified as M. ovipneumoniae, 13 (17.33%) M. arginini, whereas 41 (54.66) samples did not amplify with either of the clusters specific primers or other species specific primers and remain unidentified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Akabane disease is an arthropod-borne viral disease that affects ruminants. This teratogenic pathogen causes severe economic losses in ruminants worldwide and in Iran; however, it has not received enough attention in Fars province, Iran. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the influence of age, gender, climate, farming system, and history of abortions on the seroprevalence of the Akabane disease in sheep and goats in Fars province. In the present study, Fars province was divided into three climates, and three cities were randomly selected from each climatic region. In each city, two epidemiologic units were selected, and all sheep and goats in each unit were sampled. Overall, 540 serum samples (391 sheep and 149 goats) were collected and examined with the commercial ELISA kit. The results showed that 83 out of 540 (15.4%) samples were seropositive and had antibodies against the Akabane virus (AKAV). The effect of gender and age on the rate of the AKAV was not significant. Animals in warm climates were 4.218 times more likely to have antibodies against the AKAV than animals in cold climates. Females were 1.32 times more likely to exhibit seropositivity. The odds of AKAV infection were higher in animals with an abortion history than in healthy animals. The findings of the present study indicated that the prevalence of the AKAV was high in small ruminants in Fars province. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct more studies to control the risk factors involved in the spread of this virus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Brucella is a Gram-negative facultative intracellular pathogen that causes infection in sheep and goats (B. melitensis.); B. melitensis can also infect other animals. Sheep and goat brucellosis is still present in some regions of Italy, including Campania, and causes considerable economic losses and health threats. The aim of this study was to evaluate the possible risk factors influencing the spread of brucellosis among sheep and goat farms in the Campania region in order to provide the local veterinary services with practical support in evaluating and planning diagnostic, preventive and control interventions. The results of official controls for brucellosis carried out from 2015 to 2020 in the sheep and goat farms of the Campania Region were analyzed. Data were extracted from the National Veterinary Information Systems and the Laboratory Management System of the Experimental Zooprophylactic Institute of Southern Italy. Statistical analysis was carried out through the software R version 4.1.0; the dataset consisted of 37,442 observations, and 9 qualitative and quantitative variables were evaluated on 8487 farms, 248 of which were positive. The association between covariates and the outcome (presence/absence of the disease) was evaluated (Fisher and Wilcoxon tests). A logistic regression model with mixed effects was carried out. This study confirmed that brucellosis in sheep and goats in the Campania region mostly occurs through contact with infected animals imported from other farms (OR = 3.41—IC 95% [1.82–6.41]). Farms with a greater number of animals were seen to be at the greatest risk of infection (OR = 1.04—IC 95% [1.03–1.05]); previous suspension of healthy status also proved to be a risk factor (OR = 55.8—IC 95% [26.7–117]). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Romania is a major sheep and goat breeding country in Eastern Europe and has trading partners for live animals and sheep and goat meat trade, both inside and outside the EU (e.g., in the Balkans, Middle East and Asia). The paper presents the quantity and value of the world's largest live sheep and goat and their meat importers and exporters for the period 2018-2022. At the same time, Romania's main partners and its position on the sheep and goat meat market are highlighted. The methodology used included a statistical analysis of trade quantities and values based on the International Trade Center data series. The results of the study show that Romania developed well in terms of value exports of live sheep and goats, becoming number one in the world during the study period. Romania also ranked 27th in the category of fresh, chilled or frozen sheep or goat meat exports by value. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Caseous lymphadenitis (CLA) is a chronic suppurative bacterial infection caused by Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis (C. pseudotuberculosis) affecting superficial and internal lymph nodes and internal organs of small ruminants. Aims: Through the use of molecular methods, this study aimed to estimate the prevalence of CLA and its contributing factors as well as the degree of genetic diversity and epidemiological relationships among C. pseudotuberculosis isolates from slaughtered sheep and goats in various districts of Duhok Province, Iraq. Methods: A total of 18,836 carcasses (15,775 sheep and 3,061 goats) were inspected by veterinarians at slaughterhouses [Duhok-Sumel (2,453 sheep + 627 goats), Zakho (6,000 sheep), Bardarash (1,117 sheep + 379 goats), Amedi (413 sheep + 178 goats) and Akre (5,792 sheep + 1,877 goats)] in Duhok Province for detection the prevalence rate of CLA using molecular techniques. Results: The prevalence of the disease was 0.94% and 1.93% in sheep and goats, respectively. Sheep in Duhok-Sumel and goats in Amedi were at a higher risk of infection than the animals in another location, with a prevalence rate of 4.31% and 6.18%, respectively. Sheep and goats of older age were more susceptible. Females were more susceptible than males in all districts except Duhok-Sumel where the reverse was true. ERIC-PCR analysis grouped the bacterial isolates into 11 different genotypes. The maximum likelihood phylogenetic tree of partial sequences of the 16S rRNA gene sequences of C. pseudotuberculosis revealed no divergent sequences discovered in this study. Conclusion: A strict control program needs to be applied to reduce the entrance of pathogen from neighboring countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: In the present study, gastrointestinal parasites (GIP) prevalence in sheep and goats from India was estimated by scientometrics. Methods: The GIP prevalence studies (86) reported during 1998–2021 was obtained from online databases, and offline literatures, meta-analysis was undertaken by using "meta" package in R-Software. Results: The pooled GIP prevalence in India was 65% (95% level CI 56–74%, PI 12–96%) in sheep, 74% (95% level CI 66–80%, PI 14–98%) in goats and 68% (95% level CI 62–73%, PI 15–96%) in sheep and goats. Period-wise analysis revealed a higher GIP prevalence during 1998–2010 than the recent periods. Among the zones, GIP prevalence was higher in the Central zone (79%) in sheep, North zone (82%) in goats, and Central zone (78%) in sheep and goats. Based on the state-wise analysis, a higher GIP prevalence was observed in Haryana for sheep, Himachal Pradesh for goats, and Uttarakhand for sheep and goats. In India, a higher prevalence was reported by nematodes than other parasite classes. Based on climatic regions, a higher GIP prevalence was observed in semi-arid Steppe type region (84%). Conclusion: The high prevalence zones, states, species, sample types, parasite classes, parasite species and climate regions of GIP will be useful in decision-making and resource use efficiency by policymakers and stake holders. There is an urgent need to prevent the occurrence of GIP infections in sheep and goats by adopting scientific management practices, effective therapeutic measures, and hygienic practices on farms to augment the economic benefits to sheep and goat farmers in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The primary objectives were to isolate and identify Klebsiella pneumoniae (K. pneumoniae), and determine the antimicrobial resistance patterns and biofilm formation abilities of the isolates. Additionally, the study aimed to investigate the antimicrobial and anti-biofilm effects of cinnamon oil against K. pneumoniae isolates. A cross-sectional study was conducted from March 2022 to April 2023 to collect 200 samples (including 156 nasal swabs and 44 lung specimens) from pneumonic sheep and goats admitted to the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of Zagazig University, Egypt. K. pneumoniae was isolated from a total of 72 (36%) samples, with 53 (73.6%) isolates recovered from nasal swabs and 19 (26.4%) from lung samples. Among the samples, 52 (36.9%) were from sheep and 20 (33.9%) were from goats. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing of the 72 K. pneumoniae isolates to 18 antimicrobials revealed that all isolates were resistant to ampicillin, amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, cefotaxime, ceftriaxone, tetracycline, colistin, fosfomycin, and trimethoprim/sulphamethoxazole. None of the isolates were resistant to amikacin, imipenem, and norfloxacin. Multidrug resistance (MDR) was observed in all K. pneumoniae isolates recovered from sheep and goats. The average MAR index was 0.71, ranging from 0.50 to 0.83. Regarding biofilm formation, among the K. pneumoniae isolates with a high MAR index (n = 30), 10% exhibited strong formation, 40% showed moderate formation, 43.3% displayed weak formation, and 6.7% did not form biofilms. Additionally, the biofilm-forming genes treC and fimA were present in all 28 biofilm-forming K. pneumoniae isolates, while the mrkA gene was detected in 15 (53.6%) of the 28 isolates. MDR K. pneumoniae isolates with strong biofilm formation abilities were treated with cinnamon oil at varying concentrations (100%, 75%, 50%, and 25%). This treatment resulted in inhibition zone diameters ranging from 35 to 45 mm. Cinnamon oil exhibited lower minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration values compared to norfloxacin for all isolates. Additionally, cinnamon oil significantly reduced the expression of biofilm-associated genes (treC, fimA, and mrkA) when compared to isolates treated with norfloxacin or untreated. In conclusion, this study identified a high level of MDR K. pneumoniae with strong and moderate biofilm formation abilities in pneumonic sheep and goats in Sharika Governorate, Egypt. Although cinnamon oil demonstrated potential antibacterial and anti-biofilm properties against K. pneumoniae, further research is required to investigate its effectiveness in treating K. pneumoniae infections in pneumonic sheep and goats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Caseous lymphadenitis (CLA) is a chronic suppurative bacterial infection caused by Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis (C. pseudotuberculosis) affecting superficial and internal lymph nodes and internal organs of small ruminants. Aims: Through the use of molecular methods, this study aimed to estimate the prevalence of caseous lymphadenitis and it's contributing factors as well as the degree of genetic diversity and epidemiological relationships among C. pseudotuberculosis isolates from slaughtered sheep and goats in various districts of Duhok Province, Iraq. Methods: A total of 18836 carcasses (15775 sheep and 3061 goats) were inspected by veterinarians at slaughterhouses (Duhok-Sumel (2453 sheep+627 goats), Zakho (6000 sheep), Bardarash (1117 sheep+379 goats), Amedi (413 sheep+178 goats) and Akre (5792 sheep+1877 goats)) in Duhok Province for detection the prevalence rate of CLA using molecular techniques. Results: The prevalence of the disease was 0.94% and 1.93% in sheep and goats, respectively. Sheep in Duhok-Sumel and goats in Amedi were at the higher risk of infection than the animals in another location, with a prevalence rate of 4.31% and 6.18%, respectively. Sheep and goats of older age were more susceptible. Females were more susceptible than males in all districts except Duhok-Sumel where the reverse was true. ERIC-PCR analysis grouped the bacterial isolates into 11 different genotypes. Maximum Likelihood phylogenetic tree of partial sequences of the 16S rRNA gene sequences of C. pseudotuberculosis revealed no divergent sequences discovered in this study. Conclusion: A strict control program needs to be applied to reduce the entrance of the pathogen from the neighboring countries. [Open Vet J 2023; 13(5.000): 588-598]

Using ear tags, farmers can track specific data for individual lambs such as age, medical records, body condition scores, genetic abnormalities; to make data-based decisions. However, automatic reading of ear tags using Radio Frequency Identification requires (a) an antenna, (b) a reader, (c) comparable reading standards; consequently, such a system can be expensive and impractical for a large group of lambs, especially in situations where animals are not required to have a compulsory Electronic identification, contrary to the case in Europe, where it is mandatory. Therefore, this paper proposes a machine vision system for indoor animals to identify individual lambs using existing ear tags. Using a camera that is installed such that the trough is visible, the drinking behaviour of the lambs can be automatically monitored. Data from different lamb groups in two different pens were collected. The identification algorithm includes a number of steps: (1) Detecting the lambs' face, and its ear tags in each image; (2) Cropping each ear tag image and discerning the digits on it to obtain the tag number; (3) Tracking each lamb throughout the visit using a tracking algorithm; (4) Recovering the ear tag number using an algorithm that incorporates a list of the ear tag numbers of the lambs in each pen, and the predictions for each lamb in each frame. The You Only Look Once deep learning object detection algorithm was applied to locate and localise the lamb's face and the digits in an image. The models' datasets contained 1 160 and 2 165 images for the training set, and 325 and 616 images for the validation set, respectively. The algorithm output includes the identity of each lamb that came to drink, and its duration. The identification system resulted in a total accuracy of 93% for the data tested, which consisted of approximately 900 visits to the drinking stations, and was collected in real time in a natural environment. The ground truth of each video of a visit was obtained by human observation by studying the video. We checked if there was indeed a visit to the water trough and if so we registered the ear tag number of each lamb whose head was above the water trough. Thus, identifying lambs in a commercial pen using a relatively inexpensive and easily installed system consisting of a RGB camera and a computer vision-based algorithm has potential for farm management.

This study aims to estimate the economic returns of sheep and goat rearing as well as total cost and returns to identify the profit margin made by out each farmer. The random sample consists of 196 breeders who breed 58240, sheep and goats in the Karak governorate of Jordan. The sample represents 13% of the total sheep and goat population (445300) in Karak. The primary data were collected through personal interviews with farmers using a questionnaire. The questionnaire was designed to achieve the study objectives and consisted of three themes. The first theme was questioning the variables that relate to the farmer’s personal characteristics (demography). The second theme contains a set of questions regarding financial production cost and return parameters during the milking season including the marketing process. The third theme consists of information about the return from selling individual sheep and goats and products such as wool and manure. The collected data from the questionnaire were statistically analyzed following Likert 5 Scale The financial analysis was conducted using Gross margin analysis. The findings of the analysis show that 52.6% of farmers were above 50 years old. the average size of the herd was 297. The variable cost for the herd was 13067.98, Jordanian Dinar, while the total returns were 17104.54, JOD, and the Gross margin ratio was 0.23599. The amount of milk production was (3,494.4) tons in a season lasting 3 months on average. The average prices of milk of goats and sheep are 1.1 and 0.87 JOD/kg, respectively, Moreover, 53.3% of the farmers processed the domestically produced milk into Jameed, butter, and margarine. The result of the analysis of gross margin was 30%, indicating the sheep and goats rearing projects make profits in Karak Governorate. The study recommends that a national program should be developed to maintain local breeds, set appropriate standards, and define trademarks for the local production of Jameed and domestic margarine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Brucellosis in sheep and goats has a significant economic and zoonotic impact on the livestock population of Duhok province, Iraq. A total of 681 blood samples from aborted sheep and goats were collected from different flocks in seven districts of Duhok and tested using real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Logistic regression was used for the analysis of the potential risk factors associated with RT-PCR positivity. Results revealed an overall prevalence of 35.45% (CI = 2.57) and 23.8% 18 (CI = 0.44) in sheep and goats, respectively. A statistically significant (p = 0.004) difference in prevalence was found between the two species. RT-PCR detected more positive cases in older-aged animals (OR = 0.7164; p = 0.073). A significant difference was found in RT-PCR positivity in relation to different risk factors, including body condition, treatment taken, and abortion frequency (<0.001). The phylogenetic tree based on the 16S rRNA gene indicated that the isolates belonged to B. melitensis and shared a common ancestor and were genetically related to the United States of America (USA), Greece, China, and Nigeria. This study demonstrates that brucellosis is widely prevalent in the study regions. Therefore, the study suggests the implementation of preventive control measures for brucellosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Milk yield and components in small ruminants fed Saccharomyces cerevisiae (SC) have been investigated, but results were not consistent among investigators. Hence, this trial aimed to explore the efficacy of SC supplementation in improving milk yield and components (i.e., milk proteins, fat, lactose, total solids and ash) in small ruminants. A search performed in Scopus, PubMed and Google Scholar databases yield 1,826 studies, of which 26 met the inclusion criteria. Random-effects model was used to aggregate milk production variables. Meta-regression analysis examined the effect of the following moderators: SC type, ruminant type (sheep or goat), diet type, breed, duration of supplementation and supplementation levels on outcome measures. Subgroup analysis explored the influence of the following moderators: SC type and ruminant type on outcomes measures. SC had positive moderate effect on milk yield (standardised mean difference [SMD] = 0.72; p < 0.001; heterogeneity [I 2] = 73%) and small effect on milk proteins (SMD = 0.46; p = 0.004; I 2 = 83%), milk lactose (SMD = 0.17; p = 0.007; I 2 = 0%) and fat (SMD = 0.28; p = 0.016; I 2 = 70%). Subgroup analysis revealed that SC improved milk yield, lactose and proteins in lactating sheep and milk yield and fat in lactating goats. Our results show that moderators influenced the results of the meta-analysis and explained most of the sources of heterogeneity. In conclusion, SC should be included in small ruminant diets as it had small-to-moderate effects on milk yield and aspects of milk components.

Milk yield and components in small ruminants fed Saccharomyces cerevisiae (SC) have been investigated, but results were not consistent among investigators. Hence, this trial aimed to explore the efficacy of SC supplementation in improving milk yield and components (i.e., milk proteins, fat, lactose, total solids and ash) in small ruminants. A search performed in Scopus, PubMed and Google Scholar databases yield 1,826 studies, of which 26 met the inclusion criteria. Randomeffects model was used to aggregate milk production variables. Meta-regression analysis examined the effect of the following moderators: SC type, ruminant type (sheep or goat), diet type, breed, duration of supplementation and supplementation levels on outcome measures. Subgroup analysis explored the influence of the following moderators: SC type and ruminant type on outcomes measures. SC had positive moderate effect on milk yield (standardised mean difference [SMD] = 0.72; p < 0.001; heterogeneity [I2 ] = 73%) and small effect on milk proteins (SMD = 0.46; p = 0.004; I2= 83%), milk lactose (SMD = 0.17; p = 0.007; I2 = 0%) and fat (SMD = 0.28; p = 0.016; I2 = 70%). Subgroup analysis revealed that SC improved milk yield, lactose and proteins in lactating sheep and milk yield and fat in lactating goats. Our results show that moderators influenced the results of the meta-analysis and explained most of the sources of heterogeneity. In conclusion, SC should be included in small ruminant diets as it had small-to-moderate effects on milk yield and aspects of milk components. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was focused on the prevalence of E. coli in mastitis and endometritis of sheep and goats in Beni-Suef government with a total number of 238 samples as follow; 122 of native breed lactating ewes (n=90) and does (n=32) from private farms suffered from mastitis and a total of 116 of native breed of ewes (n=83) and she-goats (n=33) from endometritis cases in which137 isolates of Escherichia coli (E. coli) categorized as 68 isolates were isolated from mastitis and 69 isolates from endometritis with a prevalence rate of 55.7 % and 59.5 %, respectively. Antibiogram for E. coli isolates recovered from ovine and caprine mastitic cases showed resistance to amoxicillin-clavulanic acid (67.65%), cephalexin (64.71 %), amoxicillin (58.82%), cefotaxime (57.42 %), ceftriaxone (54.42 %) and gentamicin (44.11%). On the contrary, the recovered E. coli isolates from endometritis of ewes and does showed resistance to amoxicillin-clavulanic acid (69.57%), cefotaxime (68.11 %), amoxicillin (66.66 %), cephalexin (65.22%), ceftriaxone (62.32 %), colistin (46.38%) and gentamicin (44.93%). Sixty E. coli isolates (27 isolates from ovine mastitis milk samples and 33 isolates from endometritis samples were inoculated onto Yeast extract-casamino acids Congo red agar (YESCA CRA) revealed that 39 of E. coli isolates showed positive biofilm formation. Multidrug resistance was detected in 70 E. coli isolates out of 137 isolates (51.09%) (31 E. coli isolates from mastitis milk samples and 39 isolates from endometritis samples). The prevalence of virulence and resistance genes of E. coli as fimH, iutA, qnrA and blaTEM was 100%, 25%, 50% and 100%, respectively. This work was designed for detection of virulence and antibiotic resistant E. coli isolates from mastitis and endometritis cases in sheep and goats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper undertakes an institutional analysis to determine how rules, regulations, and norms guiding gender relations in four institutions - the state, market, community, and households - were affected by an intervention designed to increase women's ownership of small ruminants in Ghana's Upper West Region. Drawing on information from case farmers and key persons through structured individual interviews and focus group discussions, the paper notes that some existing norms and rules were challenged at the household and community levels. First was the norm of household heads being the automatic target of interventions. Women's involvement in the intervention increased their livestock asset base, challenging the rule that set men as dominant owners. The intervention drew more women to seek solutions to livestock health problems and even encouraged females to deliver health care to small ruminants. The changes in rules and norms, however, did not extend to all small ruminant production activities. Males retained the hold over animal sales and critical spaces in decision-making in all the critical stages of the intervention; they set the rules and ensured enforcement. Women still needed their husbands' permission to offer services to other farmers, especially men. Targeting women in agriculture production can initiate some alterations in gender relations, particularly in the area of resource ownership. The extent to which these can alter crucial markers of women's subordinate positions however requires the systematic engagement of institutional rules and norms that support unequal gender relations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Brucella is a Gram-negative facultative intracellular pathogen that causes infection in sheep and goats (B. melitensis.); B. melitensis can also infect other animals. Sheep and goat brucellosis is still present in some regions of Italy, including Campania, and causes considerable economic losses and health threats. The aim of this study was to evaluate the possible risk factors influencing the spread of brucellosis among sheep and goat farms in the Campania region in order to provide the local veterinary services with practical support in evaluating and planning diagnostic, preventive and control interventions. The results of official controls for brucellosis carried out from 2015 to 2020 in the sheep and goat farms of the Campania Region were analyzed. Data were extracted from the National Veterinary Information Systems and the Laboratory Management System of the Experimental Zooprophylactic Institute of Southern Italy. Statistical analysis was carried out through the software R version 4.1.0; the dataset consisted of 37,442 observations, and 9 qualitative and quantitative variables were evaluated on 8487 farms, 248 of which were positive. The association between covariates and the outcome (presence/absence of the disease) was evaluated (Fisher and Wilcoxon tests). A logistic regression model with mixed effects was carried out. This study confirmed that brucellosis in sheep and goats in the Campania region mostly occurs through contact with infected animals imported from other farms (OR = 3.41—IC 95% [1.82–6.41]). Farms with a greater number of animals were seen to be at the greatest risk of infection (OR = 1.04—IC 95% [1.03–1.05]); previous suspension of healthy status also proved to be a risk factor (OR = 55.8—IC 95% [26.7–117]).

The primary objectives were to isolate and identify Klebsiella pneumoniae (K. pneumoniae), and determine the antimicrobial resistance patterns and biofilm formation abilities of the isolates. Additionally, the study aimed to investigate the antimicrobial and anti-biofilm effects of cinnamon oil against K. pneumoniae isolates. A cross-sectional study was conducted from March 2022 to April 2023 to collect 200 samples (including 156 nasal swabs and 44 lung specimens) from pneumonic sheep and goats admitted to the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of Zagazig University, Egypt. K. pneumoniae was isolated from a total of 72 (36%) samples, with 53 (73.6%) isolates recovered from nasal swabs and 19 (26.4%) from lung samples. Among the samples, 52 (36.9%) were from sheep and 20 (33.9%) were from goats. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing of the 72 K. pneumoniae isolates to 18 antimicrobials revealed that all isolates were resistant to ampicillin, amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, cefotaxime, ceftriaxone, tetracycline, colistin, fosfomycin, and trimethoprim/sulphamethoxazole. None of the isolates were resistant to amikacin, imipenem, and norfloxacin. Multidrug resistance (MDR) was observed in all K. pneumoniae isolates recovered from sheep and goats. The average MAR index was 0.71, ranging from 0.50 to 0.83. Regarding biofilm formation, among the K. pneumoniae isolates with a high MAR index (n = 30), 10% exhibited strong formation, 40% showed moderate formation, 43.3% displayed weak formation, and 6.7% did not form biofilms. Additionally, the biofilm-forming genes treC and fimA were present in all 28 biofilm-forming K. pneumoniae isolates, while the mrkA gene was detected in 15 (53.6%) of the 28 isolates. MDR K. pneumoniae isolates with strong biofilm formation abilities were treated with cinnamon oil at varying concentrations (100%, 75%, 50%, and 25%). This treatment resulted in inhibition zone diameters ranging from 35 to 45 mm. Cinnamon oil exhibited lower minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration values compared to norfloxacin for all isolates. Additionally, cinnamon oil significantly reduced the expression of biofilm-associated genes (treC, fimA, and mrkA) when compared to isolates treated with norfloxacin or untreated. In conclusion, this study identified a high level of MDR K. pneumoniae with strong and moderate biofilm formation abilities in pneumonic sheep and goats in Sharika Governorate, Egypt. Although cinnamon oil demonstrated potential antibacterial and anti-biofilm properties against K. pneumoniae, further research is required to investigate its effectiveness in treating K. pneumoniae infections in pneumonic sheep and goats.

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Small ruminants are economic mainstay in developing countries because of its direct contribution to food security, but the occurrence of epidemics poses a continuous threat. Early diagnosis can strengthen the prevention of zoonosis. Therefore, a high-sensitivity real-time fluorescent PCR freeze-dried type assay that can be stored and transported at room temperature was developed for 11 sheep and goats pathogens in this study. The results showed that there was no non-specific amplification in systems containing different pathogen positive controls; The areas under the ROC curves were all in the range of 0.99-1.00; The LOD counted by Digital PCR were 194, 96, 84, 40, 265, 68, 208, 236, 118, 53 and 723 copies/mL for M. ovis, Pathogenic Leptospira, C. burnetii, BTV, PPRV, Brucella, exJSRV, C. abortus, ORFV, FMDV and CPV, respectively. The coefficients of variation of both intra-group and inter-group replicate tests were less than 5.00 %; The accelerated thermostatic lyophilization test was used to predict the validity period; The LOD of each positive pathogen was still detected after 6 days at 56 ℃, suggesting that the validity period can be at least 567 days at room temperature. In this study, a high-sensitivity real-time fluorescent PCR freeze-dried type assay that can be stored and transported at room temperature was developed for 11 sheep and goats pathogens, which were Mycoplasma ovis (M. ovis), Pathogenic Leptospira, Coxiella burnetii (C. burnetii), Bluetongue virus (BTV), Peste des pestis ruminants virus (PPRV), Brucella, exogenous jaagsiekte sheep retrovirus (exJSRV), Chlamydia abortus (C. abortus), Orf virus (ORFV), Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV), and Capripox virus (CPV)., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest No conflict of interest exits in the submission of this manuscript, and manuscript is approved by all authors for publication. I would like to declare on behalf of my co-authors that the work described was original research that has not been published previously, and not under consideration for publication elsewhere, in whole or in part. All the authors listed have approved the manuscript that is enclosed., (Copyright © 2024. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Brucellosis, Q fever, and leptospirosis are priority zoonoses worldwide, yet their epidemiology is understudied, and studies investigating multiple pathogens are scarce. Therefore, we selected 316 small ruminants in irrigated, pastoral, and riverine settings in Tana River County and conducted repeated sampling for animals that were initially seronegative between September 2014 and June 2015. We carried out serological and polymerase chain reaction tests and determined risk factors for exposure. The survey-weighted serological incidence rates were 1.8 (95% confidence intervals [CI]: 1.3–2.5) and 1.3 (95% CI: 0.7–2.3) cases per 100 animal-months at risk for Leptospira spp. and C. burnetii, respectively. We observed no seroconversions for Brucella spp. Animals from the irrigated setting had 6.83 (95% CI: 2.58–18.06, p-value = 0.01) higher odds of seropositivity to C. burnetii than those from riverine settings. Considerable co-exposure of animals to more than one zoonosis was also observed, with animals exposed to one zoonosis generally having 2.5 times higher odds of exposure to a second zoonosis. The higher incidence of C. burnetii and Leptospira spp. infections, which are understudied zoonoses in Kenya compared to Brucella spp., demonstrate the need for systematic prioritization of animal diseases to enable the appropriate allocation of resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Environmental stressors have, over generations, influenced the morphology, anatomy, behaviour, physiology, and genetic structure of small ruminants. The widespread dispersal of small ruminants over vast geographical areas occurred along with human migration, thereby promoting the adaptative process to different environmental conditions mainly through natural selection. Ongoing global warming prompted scientific efforts to deepen the knowledge and understanding of adaptation traits in small ruminants. Compared to other ruminants, sheep and goats seem to have a better adaptation ability to environmental stressors, as evident by their presence across different geographic areas on a global level. Adaptation to a specific environment leads to variations in precise genomic regions, allowing for the identification and selection of animals with a high capacity of adaptation to environmental stressors. Rapid development in sequencing technologies, together with bioinformatics tools, make it possible to analyse the genomic regions related to environmental adaptation. Hence, the aims of this review were (i) to outline the main steps of the evolution process in sheep and goat species, (ii) to summarise candidate genes related to environmental adaptation, and (iii) to evaluate both selection and conservation possibilities of these genes in native small ruminant breeds for future challenges to better face the global warming. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Aim: For understanding the epidemiology of leptospirosis, the confined abundance of several species of pathogenic leptospires and knowledge on the serovar(s) prevalent in the reservoir and carrier hosts may be a useful indicator of transmission to incidental/accidental hosts in a geographical niche. The present study was carried out to ascertain the frequency distribution of Leptospira serovars and the prevalence of anti-leptospiral antibodies in small ruminants (sheep and goats) in the epidemiological units (villages) in the coastal districts of enzootic regions in South Peninsular India. Materials and Methods: A total of 1167 serum samples (sheep n=299 and goats n=868) from apparently healthy animals, randomly collected from various epidemiological units were tested in microscopic agglutination test (MAT) using 18 reference Leptospira serovars antigens. Results: The overall seroprevalence of 40% (at 95% confidence intervals [CI]: 36.82-42.43) in small ruminants (44% [95% CI: 40.49-52.26] in sheep and 38% [95% CI: 34.96-41.41] in goats) was observed with the predominance of Icterohaemorrhagiae, Javanica, Australis, Hurstbridge, and Pyrogenes serogroup anti-leptospiral antibodies in the studied region. The Chi-squared test revealed that the presence of anti-leptospiral antibodies is significantly not independent (associated) across the administrative division (Chi-square=105.80, p

Eimeriosis of farm animals is one of the most widespread parasitic diseases in the world. In the conditions of the steppe zone of Ukraine Eimeria perforans is more common in rabbits and E. arloingi in sheep and goats. Study of factors which influence the development of these protists on the soil surface is one of the major challenges for veterinarians working for large livestock companies and fighting against eimeriosis. Environmental temperature is able to change the speed of sporulation of oocysts Eimeria. Five values of temperature (15, 20, 25, 30, and 35 °C) were used in a laboratory experiment in vitro. At 15 °C, the process of sporulation of E. arloingi and E. perforans in 100% of cases ended on the eighth day. With increase in temperature to 35 °C, the duration of sporulation decreased to three days. When the temperature was 30 °C the completion of sporulation was observed in more than 50% of the oocysts of E. arloingi on the second day, and for E. perforans on the third day. High-speed sporulation at elevated temperatures under conditions of global warming can result in the increasing spread of eimeriosis among wild and domestic animals.

Brucellosis in sheep and goats has a significant economic and zoonotic impact on the livestock population of Duhok province, Iraq. A total of 681 blood samples from aborted sheep and goats were collected from different flocks in seven districts of Duhok and tested using real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Logistic regression was used for the analysis of the potential risk factors associated with RT-PCR positivity. Results revealed an overall prevalence of 35.45% (CI = 2.57) and 23.8% 18 (CI = 0.44) in sheep and goats, respectively. A statistically significant (p = 0.004) difference in prevalence was found between the two species. RT-PCR detected more positive cases in older-aged animals (OR = 0.7164; p = 0.073). A significant difference was found in RT-PCR positivity in relation to different risk factors, including body condition, treatment taken, and abortion frequency (B. melitensis and shared a common ancestor and were genetically related to the United States of America (USA), Greece, China, and Nigeria. This study demonstrates that brucellosis is widely prevalent in the study regions. Therefore, the study suggests the implementation of preventive control measures for brucellosis.

Background and Aim: Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a contagious, World Organization for Animal Health notifiable, economically important, transboundary morbilliviral disease of sheep and goats. Studying seroprevalence of PPR from different geographical areas under varying agro-climatic conditions may help in formulating effective and appropriate disease control strategies under the ongoing national PPR control program. The present cross-sectional study describes the prevalence of PPR virus antibodies in sheep and goats in the various epidemiological units in different states (Haryana, Himachal Pradesh [HP], Jammu and Kashmir [J&K], Punjab, Uttarakhand [UK], and Uttar Pradesh [UP]) of the northern region of India. Materials and Methods: A total of 5843 serum samples (sheep [n=2463] and goats [n=3380]) were collected by stratified random sampling method from 322 epidemiological units in the studied region during 2017-2018 and tested for PPR virus (PPRV) antibodies by competitive ELISA. Results: The results revealed that an overall seroprevalence of 44.05% (2574/5843) with 57.32%, 55.22%, 65.69%, 37.09%, 32.73%, and 29.35% prevalence of PPRV antibodies in small ruminants in Haryana, Punjab, UP, HP, J&K, and UK states, respectively. Further, Chi-squared test revealed an association of PPRV antibodies in goats (χ2=252.28, p

This study intends to explore the prevalence of pathogenic bacteria infected the vaginal cavity of sheep and goats, in addition to determine the normal vaginal bacterial flora in pregnant and non pregnant local breed goat and sheep. Vaginal swabs were collected from 80 cases comprised of 54 sheep and 26 goats that involve 20 and 6 pregnant ewes and goats from Baghdad city during May 2019 to July 2019. These samples were cultivated onto different bacteriological media. The isolated bacteria were identified by different biochemical tests. Mixed bacterial isolates were determined in 65 out of 80 (81.3%) samples. Totally, 9 various microorganisms were isolated from animal’s vagina. E. coli, Streptococcus Spp, KlebsiellaSpp and Staphylococcus aureus were the most common isolated microorganism from vaginal swabs in a percentage of 36, 20, 17.5 and 16.3%respectively. While Bacillus Spp, Proteus Spp, Staphylococcus Spp, Corynebacterium Spp and Salmonella Spp.were the less common isolated microorganisms in a percentages of 10, 10, 7.5, 6.3 and %2.5 respectively. Moreover, the enteric bacteria especially E. coli was isolated in the higher incidence rate (44.4%) in pregnant ewes compared to pregnant goats 15.4%. However, in non-pregnant animals, the percentages were 50 and 15% in sheep and goats respectively. Nonetheless, Proteus Spp were isolated only from newly birth animals. Meanwhile, Staphylococcus aureus were relatively isolated at the same level of incidence at 15%-17% in either pregnant or non-pregnant sheep or goats, while Streptococcus Spp were mostly found in pregnant goats and ewes at 50 and 25% respectively. In conclusion, this study approved the isolation of different bacterial spp in various incidence rates from vaginal cavity of pregnant and non-pregnant sheep and goats.

Mountain areas are sensitive to changes in precipitation and temperature, which significantly impact traditional pastoralist communities, their economy, and their lifestyle. Alarming climate change scenarios justify the investigation of the ecological and socioeconomic vulnerabilities that characterize Portugal's mountain regions. This work explores how the traditional production systems of small ruminants—sheep and goats—could adapt in the Montesinho mountain range as it changes over the next 2 decades. Land use–land cover maps from 1995 and 2018 show how the pastoral landscape has changed and indicate trends for a future scenario. Documented landscape grazing patterns are used to determine sheep and goat landscape preferences under different climatic conditions. Finally, we identify the near-future constraints on traditional sheep and goat systems, contrasting landscape changes with sheep and goat preferences. Over coming decades, the balance between rangelands and cultivated lands will persist in the Montesinho mountain landscape, despite some trade-offs between both. Woodlands could emerge from scrublands colonizing rangelands, and permanent crops could significantly replace arable lands in agricultural areas. Therefore, it is likely that the agricultural areas preferred for sheep, and rangelands preferred for goats, may not be affected by the forecast landscape changes, but rather be favored by the expansion of permanent crops. However, pasture areas must expand, as they are key to pastoral landscape function in a warming climate scenario. Landscape decision makers and managers should implement a landscape-monitoring system to inform policies and strategies aimed at protecting and safeguarding mountain pastoralism and its vital ecosystem services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]