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The seven letters written by Ignatius in the early decades of the second century C.E. offer a fascinating if enigmatic glimpse at the internal life of the churches of western Asia Minor. Helpful introductions to Ignatius are P. Nautin, “Ignatius of Antioch,” in Encyclopedia of the Early Church (ed. Angelo Di Berardino; trans. A. Walford; 2 vols.; New York: Oxford University Press, 1992) 1.404–5, and Christine Trevett, A Study of Ignatius of Antioch in Syria and Asia (Lewiston, N.Y.: Edwin Mellen, 1992). For surveys of Ignatian scholarship, see William R. Schoedel, “Polycarp of Smyrna and Ignatius of Antioch,” ANRW II.27.1 (1993) 272–358 (hereafter “Schoedel, ANRW ”), and Charles Munier, “Ou en est la question d'Ignace d'Antioche?” ANRW II.27.1 (1993) 359–484. On the date of the letters, see Schoedel, ANRW , 347–49 (“anywhere between A.D. 105 and A.D. 135”) and Munier, “Ignace,” 380 (“entre les annees 110–135”). Throughout this essay the translations of Ignatius are drawn from William R. Schoedel, Ignatius of Antioch: A Commentary (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1985) (hereafter “Schoedel, Ignatius ”). I have used the Greek text edited by Joseph B. Lightfoot, The Apostolic Fathers: Part II, Ignatius and Polycarp (London: Macmillan, 1889–1890; repr., Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 1989; 3 vols.) (hereafter “Lightfoot, Ignatius ”) which I have verified against F. X. Funk, K. Bihlmeyer, and W. Schneemelcher, Die apostolischen Vater (Tubingen: Mohr-Siebeck, 1970). I have also consulted J. B. Lightfoot and J. R. Harmer, The Apostolic Fathers: Greek Texts and English Translations (ed. and rev. Michael Holmes; Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1992). Note the typographical distinction between the Pauline epistles to the Romans (Romans, Rom) and to the Ephesians (Ephesians, Eph) and the Ignatian epistles To the Romans ( Romans, Rom .) and To the Ephesians ( Ephesians, Eph .). I assume that in his letters, five of which are addressed to churches in Asia Minor, Ignatius is referring to phenomena that he observed, or heard about, while in Asia Minor. Ignatius condemns various errors and heresies, and pleads with his fellow Christians to maintain unity by accepting the leadership of their bishops. Remarkably brief, florid, and allusive, the letters are frequently obscure; as a result the nature and identification of Ignatius's opponents are much debated in contemporary scholarship. Recent discussion includes Schoedel, ANRW , 301–30; Munier, “Ignace,” 404–7 (on the “judaizers”) and 407–13 (on the “Docetists”); Jerry Sumney, “Those Who ‘Ignorantly Deny Him’: The Opponents of Ignatius of Antioch,” Journal of Early Christian Studies 1 (1993) 345–65; Mark Edwards, “Ignatius, Judaism, and Judaizing,” Eranos 93 (1995) 69–77; Judith Lieu, Image and Reality: The Jews in the World of the Christians in the Second Century (Edinburgh: TT Michael Goulder, “Ignatius's ‘Docetists,’” Vigiliae Christianae 53 (1999) 16–30; Wolfram Uebele, ‘Viele Verfuhrer sind in die Welt ausgegangen’: Die Gegner in den Briefen des Ignatius von Antiochien und in den Johannesbriefen (BWANT 151; Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 2001). Among the much-discussed opponents are the targets of the polemic in To the Philadelphians (6.1–2), in which Ignatius exhorts his flock not to listen to anyone who expounds “Judaism.”