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Given the scope and adverse clinical consequences of child abuse, assessment of salient etiological factors can lend critical insights needed for abuse prevention. Increasingly, dual-processing models have been applied to aggression, which postulate that parallel automatic and conscious processes can evoke aggressive behavior, implicating both affective and cognitive elements in both routes. Using two samples of mothers ( n = 110 and n = 195), the current investigation considered evidence of the reliability and convergent, concurrent, and construct validity of the new Automatic Parent Emotion Analog Response task relevant to parent–child aggression, contrasted with a self-reported conscious processing measure. Findings provide evidence that affective reactions of both anger and worry relate to child abuse risk and inclination to respond aggressively, and demonstrate how mothers’ automatic reactions relate to both perceived child misbehavior and child dangerous behavior. Current results lend psychometric support for automatic processing in parent–child aggression consistent with other dual-processing theories of aggression.

The National Association of Social Workers (NASW) is the leading professional organization for social work that established the Code of Ethics and sets the policy agenda for the profession. Guided by the Code of Ethics and the Grand Challenges for Social Work goal to “build healthy relationships to end violence,” the NASW Social Work Speaks policy compendium should reassert its statement against the physical punishment of children. This recommendation aligns with the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child and children’s right to protection from violence; the rigorous empirical research base, which demonstrates that physical punishment has detrimental consequences to child well-being; and similar policy statements issued by allied professional organizations. The NASW policies can advocate for ending violence against children by providing guidance on disciplinary practices that are based on principles of nonviolence and that respect children’s human rights. Practitioners can support caregivers through interventions that provide alternatives to physical punishment.

To examine whether adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and physical punishment (ie, spanking) are unique risk factors for behavior problems in early childhood, and whether ACEs moderate the associations of spanking with child behavior problems.We conducted prospective, longitudinal analyses on 2380 families in the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study. Mothers reported outcomes of externalizing and internalizing behavior problems at age 5 years; and the main predictors, ACEs and spanking, at age 3 years. ACEs included 9 items: physical abuse, emotional abuse, physical neglect, emotional neglect, mother's exposure to intimate partner violence, parental mental health problem, parental substance use, parental incarceration, and parental death. Multilevel models examined the associations between ACEs, spanking, and behavior problems, and the moderating effect of ACEs in the associations of spanking with behavior problems. Analyses were adjusted for preexisting behavior problems, demographics, and neighborhood conditions.ACEs (β = 0.028; P .001) and spanking (β = 0.041; P .001) at 3 years were unique risk factors for increased externalizing behavior problems at 5 years, after controlling for covariates. The magnitude of the associations of ACEs and spanking with externalizing behavior were statistically indistinguishable. ACEs did not moderate the association between spanking and externalizing behavior.ACEs and spanking have similar associations in predicting child externalizing behavior. Results support calls to consider physical punishment as a form of ACE. Our findings also underscore the importance of assessing exposure to ACEs and physical punishment among young children and providing appropriate intervention to children at risk.

Gender inequality perpetuates women’s economic insecurity and a culture of violence. Parental distress caused by economic pressure may increase violence against children. High levels of gender inequality and interpersonal violence may contribute to higher levels of physical abuse. Using an ecological perspective, this study examines the association of country-level gender inequality and household-level parental physical abuse, and the moderating role of child gender in this association in low- and middle-income countries. We used data on over 420,000 households from the UNICEF Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys and country-level indicators from the United Nations Development Program Human Development data. We employed multilevel logistic regression to examine the association between gender inequality with the log-odds of physical abuse after accounting for country- and individual-level covariates. In order to more fully explore our results, we calculated predicted probabilities of abuse for several scenarios. The results indicated that higher levels of gender inequality were associated with higher probabilities of physical abuse. This association was stronger for female children than for male children. The probabilities of abuse by child gender were indistinguishable, although rates of physical abuse converged as gender inequality increased, at a statistically marginal level. These findings indicate that macro-level interventions that reduce gender inequality are necessary to prevent and reduce child physical abuse.

Background: On March 11, 2020, COVID-19 was declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization. The social isolation and economic stress resulting from pandemic have the potential to exacerbate child abuse and neglect. Objective: This study examines the association of parents’ perceived social isolation and recent employment loss to risk for child maltreatment (neglect, verbal aggression, and physical punishment) in the early weeks of the COVID-19 pandemic. Participants and Setting: Participants (N = 283) were adults living in the U.S. who were parents of at least one child 0-12 years of age. Methods: Participants completed an online survey approximately 2 weeks after the World Health Organization declared that COVID-19 was a pandemic. The survey asked about recent changes (i.e., in the past 2 weeks) to employment status, parenting behaviors, use of discipline, use of spanking, and depressive symptoms. Results: Parents’ perceived social isolation and recent employment loss were associated with self-report of physical and emotional neglect and verbal aggression against the child, even after statistically controlling for parental depressive symptoms, income, and sociodemographic factors. Parents’ perceived social isolation was associated with parental report of changes in discipline, specifically, using discipline and spanking more often in the past 2 weeks. Associations were robust to analyses that included two variables that assessed days spent social distancing and days spent in “lockdown.” Conclusions: Study results point to the need for mental health supports to parents and children to ameliorate the strain created by COVID-19.

Background and Objective: Sixty countries worldwide have banned the use of physical punishment, yet little is known about the association of physical and nonphysical forms of child discipline with child development in a global context. The objective of this study is to examine whether physical punishment and nonphysical discipline are associated with child socioemotional functioning in a global sample of families from 62 countries and whether country-level normativeness of physical punishment and nonphysical discipline moderated those associations. Methods: Data for this study are from 215,885 families in the fourth and fifth rounds of the United Nations Children’s Fund Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys. Bayesian multilevel logistic models were used to analyze the associations of physical punishment and nonphysical discipline (i.e., taking away privileges and verbal reasoning) with three different outcomes representing children’s socioemotional functioning: getting along well with other children, aggression, and becoming distracted. Results: The use of physical punishment was not associated with getting along with other children, was associated with increased aggression, and was associated with increases in distraction. Taking away privileges was associated with lower levels of getting along with other children, higher levels of aggression, and higher levels of becoming distracted. Verbal reasoning (i.e., explaining why a behavior was wrong) was associated with higher levels of getting along with other children, higher levels of aggression, and higher levels of becoming distracted. Country-level normativeness moderated some of these associations but in general the direction of effects was consistent. Conclusions: Results suggest that eliminating physical punishment would benefit children across the globe and align with the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, which calls for all children to be free from physical violence. More attention needs to be focused on the associations of nonphysical forms of discipline with child functioning across the globe.

Objective: This study examined whether fathers’ prebirth pregnancy intentions were associated with fathers’ involvement with his child 15 months later. Method: Propensity score matching was used to assess the effects of fathers’ pregnancy intentions (self-reported before the birth of the child) on three measures of father involvement (residency with child, engagement in caregiving activities, and engagement in social cognitive play) in a large sample of young, diverse, and low-income fathers ( N = 2,008). Results: In this sample matched on sociodemographic and interpersonal factors, fathers reporting an intended pregnancy had significantly higher levels of social and cognitive play with their child, compared to fathers reporting an unintended pregnancy. However, intentions were not significantly associated with fathers’ residency with child or caregiving activities. Conclusion: Results suggest that fathers’ pregnancy intentions are predictive of certain types of father involvement and emphasize the importance of controlling for factors associated with both fathers’ intentions and involvement.

This study examines interparental conflict and associations with child behavior problems among a large, diverse sample of families with low income ( N = 2,691) using path model analyses of mothers’ and fathers’ reports of constructive interparental conflict, destructive interparental conflict, and intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization at 15 months and child emotional insecurity and child behavior problems at 36 months. Multigroup models examined whether parental relationship status (i.e., married, cohabiting, and churning) moderated these associations. Fathers’ perceptions of interparental conflict behaviors showed few direct associations with child outcomes, whereas mothers’ perceptions of interparental conflict showed more robust associations with child outcomes. Specifically, mother-reported destructive conflict was associated with higher levels of child emotional insecurity and child behavior problems across parental relationship status subgroups. Mother-reported constructive conflict had a small negative association with child behavior problems in cohabiting families. Child emotional insecurity mediated the association of maternal destructive conflict on child behavior problems. Although churning families experienced higher levels of moderate and severe interparental conflict, associations linking destructive conflict to child behavior problems were consistent across parental relationship subgroups. There were few direct effects of father-reported constructive and destructive conflict on child well-being. However, the results supported the notion that fathers play an influential role in the family system via maternal reports of IPV victimization. Results of this study suggest that the mechanisms underlying emotional security theory, in which child emotional insecurity mediates the associations between maternal destructive conflict and child behavior problems, apply to a large and racially diverse sample of socioeconomically disadvantaged children.

PURPOSE Few clinical guidelines focus on how physicians can identify intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetration or victimization among male patients, and little is known of men’s experiences and beliefs regarding screening in health care settings. Our objective was to determine prevalence of men’s experiences with IPV screening in health care settings and associations with men’s beliefs regarding health care clinician identification of IPV. METHODS Using a cross-sectional online survey of a nationally representative sample of 916 men aged 18-35 years, we conducted survey-weighted descriptive analyses to determine IPV prevalence, screening experiences and beliefs, and multivariate logistic regression to examine associations of demographics, IPV perpetration, and IPV victimization with men’s screening experiences and beliefs. RESULTS Of 916 men surveyed, 19% reported perpetration and 27% reported victimization in relationship with current or previous spouse/partner, 90% believed health care clinicians should ask about perpetration, 92% believed health care clinicians should ask about victimization, but only 11% had been asked about perpetration and 13% about victimization. Beliefs regarding IPV were associated with African American non-Hispanic race, IPV perpetration, and IPV victimization. Experiences being asked about IPV were associated with educational attainment and IPV perpetration. CONCLUSIONS Among young US men, 9 in 10 support IPV identification by health care clinicians, nearly 1 in 5 report using IPV, but only about 1 in 10 report health care clinicians asking about IPV. These represent missed opportunities for health care IPV identification. Beliefs and experiences regarding health care IPV identification vary by race, education, and men’s IPV perpetration and victimization. These disparities can inform tailored health care identification approaches.

This qualitative study used Twitter to examine stay-at-home parents’ publicly available postings to Twitter about discipline and spanking. Many adults still support the use of spanking despite a substantial body of evidence demonstrating that spanking is linked to a range of negative child outcomes. Little is currently known about how parents think about spanking as a disciplinary practice and how parents express these beliefs online. Five million publicly available tweets were collected from self-identified stay-at-home parents. Tweets were screened for discipline and spanking content. A qualitative analysis was conducted on the final set of tweets (N= 648). Stay-at-home parents were most likely to tweet about information related to discipline and spanking compared to tweets that made up other global themes (e.g., discipline tips). Parents most commonly posted tweets that reflected their anti-spanking beliefs compared to tweets that made up other subthemes (e.g., pro-spanking). Tweets in support of spanking emerged as well, with fathers being more likely than mothers to tweet about pro-spanking beliefs and desires. However, mothers were more likely than fathers to tweet about pro-spanking behaviors. Our results provide evidence that stay-at-home parents turn to Twitter to obtain disciplinary information and disclose their anti-spanking and pro-spanking beliefs. Anti-spanking tweets potentially reflect changing social norms and suggest that some stay-at-home parents on Twitter may be engaging in selective self-presentation. Thus, Twitter may be one avenue to use for interventions to set social norms that aim to reduce parental corporal punishment.

Caregivers use a variety of disciplinary methods to respond to undesired child behavior. Many caregivers use nonaggressive forms of discipline, such as verbal reasoning and redirection. Some caregivers use aggressive forms of discipline, such as spanking and yelling. However, most caregivers use a combination of aggressive and nonaggressive discipline. To date, a disproportionately small number of caregiver discipline studies are conducted in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), and few studies in low-resource contexts examine aggressive and nonaggressive behaviors simultaneously.This study aims to elucidate caregiver patterns of 11 disciplinary behaviors used in LMICs, and examine how these patterns relate to child outcomes and household characteristics.Data came from the fourth and fifth rounds of UNICEF Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS) distributed between 2009 and 2017 (N = 218,824 respondents across 63 countries). Focal children were 3-4 years old.Patterns of disciplinary behaviors were estimated using a multilevel latent class analysis (LCA). Multinomial regression analyses examined associations of disciplinary patterns with caregiver-reported child outcomes and household characteristics.The LCA suggested caregiver discipline fell into three overall patterns: high behavioral control, moderate behavior control, and lower behavioral control. The lower behavioral control class was associated with the most advantageous child outcomes and household socio-demographic characteristics, whereas the high behavioral control class was associated with the most disadvantageous child outcomes and household characteristics.Efforts should be employed to reduce aggressive behaviors and promote positive parenting among caregivers in LMICs.

The rise of mental health problems during COVID-19 has been called a national crisis. Parents and caregivers reported parenting stress, anxiety, and depression, which may be exacerbated by economic insecurity. This study used longitudinal data to examine the association of food insecurity and material social support to subsequent parent and child mental health outcomes in the early weeks of COVID-19. Data were collected from a national convenience sample of U.S. parents (N = 359) at two time points: April 14, 2020 (T1) and April 30, 2020 (T2). Data were analyzed using multivariate linear and logistic regression analyses. Most of the sample were mothers (67.5%) and identified as White (69.6%). Among parents for whom services were applicable, over half (51.4%) were unable to receive free and reduced-cost school-based lunch. Food insecurity at T1 was significantly associated with higher odds of parental anxiety (OR = 1.52

This study examined whether fathers' and mothers' spanking contributed to development of child aggression in the first 5 years of life. We selected parents (N = 1,298) who were married or cohabiting across all waves of data collection. Cross-lagged path models examined fathers', mothers', and both parents' within-time and longitudinal associations between spanking and child aggression when the child was 1, 3, and 5 years of age. RESULTS indicated that mothers spanked more than fathers. When examining fathers only, fathers' spanking was not associated with subsequent child aggression. When examining both parents concurrently, only mothers' spanking was predictive of subsequent child aggression. We found no evidence of multiplicative effects when testing interactions examining whether frequent spanking by either fathers or mothers was predictive of increases in children's aggression. This study suggests that the processes linking spanking to child aggression differ for mothers and fathers.

ObjectiveEnding violence against children is critical to promote the health and socioemotional development of children across the globe. To this end, the UNICEF and the WHO have called for the abolishment of spanking, which is the most pervasive form of physical violence against children worldwide. This study used an ecological perspective to examine micro-level and macro-level predictors of parental spanking across 65 countries.ParticipantsData came from the fourth and fifth rounds of the UNICEF Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys, which were administered between 2009 and 2017 (N=613 861 households). We examined the predictors of spanking using multilevel logistic regression analysis.ResultsMicro-level factors (ie, those observed at the familial level) were stronger predictors of spanking in comparison to macro-level factors (ie, those observed at the community and country level). Caregiver belief that children need physical punishment in order to be raised properly was the largest risk factor for spanking (OR=2.55, pConclusionsIntervention at the micro-level and macro-level are important to reduce violence against children across the globe.

Interparental conflict is a well-established precursor to child maladjustment. However, little is understood of the role of different interparental conflict in shaping the developmental outcomes of young children, especially those from socioeconomically disadvantaged backgrounds. This study uses data from a large and racially diverse sample of low-income, unmarried mothers with young children ( n = 1,297) to examine the processes linking parental constructive conflict, destructive conflict, intimate partner violence (IPV) to child behavior problems, and child emotional insecurity as a mediator of these processes. Path analyses were conducted to estimate structural paths between (a) conflict constructs and child behavior problems, (b) conflict constructs and child emotional insecurity, and (c) child emotional insecurity and child behavior problems. Results demonstrated that constructive conflict was associated with decreased levels of both child emotional insecurity and child behavior problems, whereas destructive conflict was associated with increased levels of both child outcomes. IPV was associated with increased levels of child emotional insecurity only. Child emotional insecurity mediated the links between all three conflict constructs and child behavior problems. Such findings suggest the need for clinicians to help raise awareness regarding the consequences of children’s exposure to different interparental conflict and educate parents about children’s sense of emotional security in the family.

Nearly one third of children under five in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) experience spanking. Studies from North America suggest that spanking is associated with heightened risk of physical abuse. However, the link between spanking and physical abuse in the international context remains understudied.To examine the association between caregivers' spanking and physical abuse of young children in LMICs, and to estimate the extent to which physical abuse might be reduced if spanking were eliminated.We used nationally representative data from 156,166 1- to 4-year-old children in 56 LMICs from the fourth and fifth rounds of UNICEF Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys.A nationally weighted multilevel logistic regression model examined the association between spanking and physical abuse. We calculated predicted probabilities of physical abuse, which we present using natural frequencies.Spanking was associated with higher odds of physical abuse (OR = 5.74, p .001). The predicted probability of physical abuse decreased by 14% comparing children who were spanked (22%) and who were not spanked (8%). When our estimates were translated to a hypothetical sample of 100 children using a natural frequency approach, 32 children were spanked; of those, seven experienced physical abuse. The elimination of spanking would result in four fewer children who were exposed to physical abuse. In relation to the population of abused children, estimates suggest that physical abuse could reduce by up to 33% if spanking were eliminated.Results support the UN Sustainable Development Goals Target 16.2 that calls for eliminating all forms of violence against children. Child welfare advocates should discourage caregivers from using spanking, in order to prevent physical abuse.

Objective: Ending violence against children is critical to promote the health and socioemotional development of children across the globe. To this end, the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and the World Health Organization (WHO) have called for the abolishment of spanking, which is the most pervasive form of physical violence against children worldwide. This study used an ecological perspective to examine micro- and macro-level predictors of parental spanking across 65 countries. Participants: Data came from the fourth and fifth rounds of the UNICEF Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys, which were administered between 2009-2017 (N = 613,861 households). We examined the predictors of spanking using multilevel logistic regression analysis. Results: Micro-level factors (i.e., those observed at the familial level) were stronger predictors of spanking in comparison to macro-level factors (i.e., those observed at the community and country level). Caregiver belief that children need physical punishment in order to be raised properly was the largest risk factor for spanking (OR = 2.55, p < .001). Older child age, the child being female, the head of the household having a secondary education or higher, and higher household wealth score were protective factors against spanking, while a higher number of people living in the household was a risk factor for spanking. Living in an urban community was the only macro-level factor associated with spanking. Conclusions: Intervention at the micro level and macro level are important to reduce violence against children across the globe.

This study uses a risk and resilience framework to examine short-term self-reported changes in relationship conflict early in the COVID-19 pandemic (March and April 2020). Longitudinal data from U.S. adults in a romantic relationship ( N = 291) were collected via three waves of an online survey. Participants self-reported anxiety, depression, increased alcohol use, and dyadic coping since the pandemic. Relationship conflict variables included whether the participant reported that they and their partner “had disagreements related to the Coronavirus,” “had more disagreements than usual,” “had more verbal fights than usual,” and “had more physical fights than usual” in the past two weeks. Analyses controlled for sociodemographic characteristics as well as days spent in lockdown and employment change due to COVID-19. Results indicated that couples’ disagreement and verbal fighting scores increased from Time 1 to Time 2, but disagreements related to COVID-19 and physical fighting did not. Couples with higher levels of dyadic coping reported fewer fights and disagreements on average. However, dyadic coping did not buffer participants from increases in relationship conflict. Increased alcohol use since the pandemic was positively associated with disagreements related to COVID-19, disagreement scores, and verbal fighting scores. More days spent in lockdown was associated with increases in disagreements related to COVID-19. The conditions created by COVID-19 may contribute to worsening relationship conflict, even among couples who start with high levels of dyadic coping. Depression and alcohol use may contribute to poorer relationship quality during the pandemic. There is need for enhanced intervention and mental health supports to mitigate the potential effects of the pandemic on couples’ relationship functioning.

Highlights • 34.6% of parents said their child’s behavior had changed since the pandemic. • Two out of five parents met criteria for depression or anxiety disorder. • Parent depression and stress were negatively associated with home education. • Parent anxiety and stress were positively associated with child anxiety. • Parents were hugging/ showing affection to child more often during pandemic., This study reports on parent-child dynamics following COVID-19 related school closures, based on cross-sectional analyses of a survey that utilized a convenience sampling approach. Data were collected approximately five weeks after the World Health Organization declared that the Coronavirus was a pandemic. Participants (N = 405) were adults recruited throughout the U.S. This study examines data from parents (69% mothers and 31% fathers) with at least one child 0-12 years of age. The majority were White (71%) and 41% had at least a bachelor’s degree. 78% of parents said they were educating their child at home due to COVID-19. Most (77.1%) reported use of online tools for at-home education, including educational apps, social media, and school-provided electronic resources. More than one-third (34.7%) of parents said their child’s behavior had changed since the pandemic, including being sad, depressed, and lonely. Most parents were spending more time involved in daily caregiving of their children since COVID-19. Two out of every five parents met the PHQ-8 criteria for major depression or severe major depression (40.0%) and the GAD-7 criteria for moderate or severe anxiety (39.9%). Multivariate analyses indicated that, compared to non-depressed parents, parents who met criteria for probable major or severe depression (B = -.16, 95% CI = [-.29, -.02], p = .021) and parenting stress (B = -.37, 95% CI = [-.47, -.27], p < .001) were negatively associated with parents’ perceived preparation to educate at home. Compared to parents with minimal or mild anxiety, parents with moderate or severe anxiety reported higher child anxiety scores (B = .17, 95% CI = [.06, .28], p = .002). Parenting stress was also positively associated with higher child anxiety scores (B = .40, 95% CI = [.32, .48], p < .001). Content analyses of open-ended questions indicated that school closures were a significant disruption, followed by lack of physical activity, and social isolation. Overall, study results suggested that parents’ mental health may be an important factor linked to at-home education and child wellbeing during the pandemic.

The present study explored racial/ethnic and sex differences in fathers’ awareness and perceived ease of communication with fathers and how they are related to adolescent bullying victimization and psychosomatic symptoms. Data were drawn from the 2009 to 2010 Health Behavior in School-Aged Children study in the United States. The sample consists of 5,121 White, 1,497 African American, and 1,850 Hispanic adolescents in grades 5 to 10. For all three racial and ethnic groups, bullying victimization was positively associated with psychosomatic symptoms. A higher level of the child's perception of their father's awareness was found to be positively associated with lower levels of bullying victimization for White and Hispanic adolescents. African American, White, and Hispanic adolescents who perceived their fathers as easy to communicate with had a lower risk of bullying victimization. The child's perception of their father's awareness buffered the positive association between bullying victimization and psychosomatic symptoms for Hispanic adolescents. A higher child's perception of their father's awareness was related to lower bullying victimization for adolescents of both sexes. The child's perception of their father's awareness and their perceived ease of communication with their father were found to be associated with a decreased risk of psychosomatic symptoms for both sexes. Overall, the results support the importance of relationship quality with fathers as a protective factor against bullying victimization.

The Covid-19 pandemic upended the country, with enormous economic and social shifts. Given the increased contact from families living in virtual confinement coupled with massive economic disarray, the Covid-19 pandemic may have created the ideal conditions to witness a rise in children’s experience of abuse and neglect. Yet such a rise will be difficult to calculate given the drop in official mechanisms to track its incidence. The current investigation utilized two studies conducted early in the pandemic to evaluate maltreatment risk. In the first cross-sectional study, parents ( n = 405) reported increased physical and verbal conflict and neglect which were associated with their perceived stress and loneliness. In the second study, parents ( n = 106) enrolled in a longitudinal study reported increased parent-child conflict, which was associated with concurrent child abuse risk, with several links to employment loss, food insecurity, and loneliness; findings also demonstrated increases in abuse risk and psychological aggression relative to pre-pandemic levels. Findings are discussed in the context of a reactive welfare system rather than a pro-active public-health oriented approach to child maltreatment, connecting with families through multiple avenues. Innovative approaches will be needed to reach children faced with maltreatment to gauge its scope and impact in the pandemic’s aftermath.

Background Understanding factors that contribute to parents’ use of physical and psychological parent-child aggression (PCA) is critical in efforts to mitigate child maltreatment. Objective Extant research has not adequately distinguished risk factors that may differ by race. Participants and methods The present study investigated potential racial differences in worry, approval of PCA, justification for PCA use, negative child intent attributions, and discrimination experiences in relation to child abuse risk and physical and psychological PCA use in a sample of 292 Black (44.9 %) and White mothers. Results As hypothesized, compared to White mothers, Black mothers demonstrated higher child abuse risk and reported more PCA use, stronger approval for using PCA, and more justification of their PCA to teach children obedience. Although Black mothers reported more discipline-relevant worry as well as more experience of discrimination, White mothers’ lower trait worry related to their greater approval of PCA for discipline, which indirectly related to their abuse risk. Contrary to expectations, perceptions of greater discrimination were related to White mothers’ increased child abuse risk, approval of PCA, and justification for PCA because of anger and to teach obedience—findings not observed for Black mothers. Conclusions The current results underscore the need for additional research on the role of discrimination and the cultural context of parenting and highlight the importance of explicitly testing racial differences to develop more culturally informed abuse prevention approaches.

Given the scope and adverse clinical consequences of child abuse, assessment of salient etiological factors can lend critical insights needed for abuse prevention. Increasingly, dual-processing models have been applied to aggression which postulate that parallel automatic and conscious processes can evoke aggressive behavior, implicating both affective and cognitive elements in both routes. Using two samples of mothers (n=110 and n=195), the current investigation considered evidence of the reliability and convergent, concurrent, and construct validity of the new Automatic Parent Emotion Analog Response (APEAR) task relevant to parent-child aggression, contrasted with a self-reported conscious processing measure. Findings provide evidence that affective reactions of both anger and worry relate to child abuse risk and inclination to respond aggressively, and demonstrate how mothers’ automatic reactions relate to both perceived child misbehavior and child dangerous behavior. Current results lend psychometric support for automatic processing in parent-child aggression consistent with other dual-processing theories of aggression.

Drug use is associated with intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetration among men, but few studies have examined the relation between prescription opioid misuse and IPV perpetration. Objectives: T...

1) To describe young men's knowledge of infant routines, discipline, development, safety, sleep, and nutrition, using items assessing the American Academy of Pediatrics Bright Futures: Guidelines for Health Supervision of Infants, Children, and Adolescents. 2) To report differences in knowledge between fathers and non-fathers. 3) To examine factors associated with men's greater knowledge.Participants were men (N = 1303) aged 18 to 35 years responding to a cross-sectional survey that was administered to a national panel established through probability sampling of the civilian, non-institutionalized US population. Survey weights allow reporting of nationally representative analyses.Participants (mean age = 27; 58% white, 36% fathers) correctly answered 52% of the infant knowledge questions. Fathers and non-fathers answered 64% and 46% of the items correctly, respectively. The difference in knowledge between fathers and non-fathers was statistically significant (B = 0.16, P.001). The subscale with the highest number of correct responses was routines (80% accuracy), followed by discipline (59% accuracy), safety (52% accuracy), sleep (51% accuracy), development (50% accuracy), and nutrition (40% accuracy). Multivariate analyses showed that depressive symptoms (B = -0.07, P.05) were associated with lower infant knowledge, while higher education (B = 0.06, P.05) and current employment (B = 0.06, P.01) were associated with higher infant knowledge.Significant gaps exist in men's knowledge of infant development. Pediatric health care providers can address gaps in parenting knowledge by providing anticipatory guidance to fathers.

This chapter focuses on men’s experiences as stay-at-home parents and primary caregivers, otherwise known as stay-at-home fathers. We present demographic data that illustrates shifts in work and family responsibilities for American men, specifically, the increasing number of fathers who are the primary caregivers of young children. We then review qualitative and quantitative research highlighting the unique lived experiences of stay-at-home fathers. We conclude with policy and research implications addressing how to support stay-at-home fathers and men in their caregiving roles.

This study sheds light upon mothers' perceptions of educational justice in a context of austerity-based educational reforms. Focus group participants (n = 64) described local schools as lacking resources, a shortcoming that contributed to overcrowded classrooms, inadequate transportation, and safety concerns. They were skeptical of elected and appointed state and district officials, who were viewed as misrepresenting the degree of financial strain in the district in order to prioritize financial profit above education services for children. Additionally, respondents struggled to identify opportunities for parent involvement in educational policy making at a state, district, or school level. The shortage of resources, skepticism, and lack of opportunity culminated in what were often described as contentious relationships between parents and school officials. Our results suggest that mothers recognize that they have been disenfranchised as a result of educational reforms. They are more likely to enroll their children and participate in schools when they perceive that there are adequate resources, that children's needs are prioritized above fiscal austerity, and that their opinions are valued.

This study employed fixed effects regression that controls for selection bias, omitted variables bias, and all time-invariant aspects of parent and child characteristics to examine the simultaneous associations between neighborhood disorganization, maternal spanking, and aggressive behavior in early childhood using data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (FFCWS). Analysis was based on 2,472 children and their mothers who participated in Wave 3 (2001–2003; child age 3) and Wave 4 (2003–2006; child age 5) of the FFCWS. Results indicated that higher rates of neighborhood crime and violence predicted higher levels of child aggression. Maternal spanking in the past year, whether frequent or infrequent, was also associated with increases in aggressive behavior. This study contributes statistically rigorous evidence that exposure to violence in the neighborhood as well as the family context are predictors of child aggression. We conclude with a discussion for the need for multilevel prevention and intervention approaches that target both community and parenting factors.

Coparenting relationship quality and father involvement are closely linked but few studies have investigated this relationship using samples of socioeconomically disadvantaged families. The current study used family systems theory to examine the longitudinal and bidirectional relations between coparenting relationship quality and father engagement in caregiving and play, using a large and racially diverse sample of low-income residential and nonresidential fathers in the Building Strong Families project (N = 1,908). Structural equation modeling tested cross-lagged relations between couple-level coparenting and father engagement at two time points for both residential and nonresidential father families. For residential fathers, positive coparenting at 15 months predicted father engagement in caregiving at 36 months. There was no support for a bidirectional or unidirectional model between coparenting and father engagement in play for either residential or nonresidential fathers. There were significant concurrent relations between coparenting and father engagement in caregiving and play for both residential and nonresidential fathers, providing support for positive spillover in line with family systems theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

A robust research literature links parental spanking with negative behavioral outcomes for children, however, it remains unclear whether conditions in the community may moderate the associations between spanking and behavior problems in early childhood. In the current study, we examined whether community violence exposure moderated the associations of maternal spanking with externalizing and internalizing behavior problems of young children. The sample used in this study was urban families and their children ages 3-5 (n = 2,472). We used fixed effects regression models, which yield stronger statistical control for baseline behavior problems, selection bias, and omitted variables bias. Mother's spanking was associated with elevated levels of both externalizing (β = .037, p < .001) and internalizing (β = .016, p < .001) behavior problems. Community violence exposure also predicted higher levels of externalizing (β = .071, p < .01) and internalizing (β = .043, p < .05) behavior problems. Community violence exposure did not moderate the associations between maternal spanking and behavior problems. Professionals working with families should promote the use of nonphysical disciplinary practices, regardless of the level of violence and crime in the community in which the family resides.

Objective: This qualitative study used Twitter to examine stay-at-home parents’ publicly available contributions to Twitter about discipline and spanking. Background: Many adults still support the use of spanking despite a substantial body of evidence demonstrating that spanking is linked to a range of negative child outcomes. Little is currently known about how parents think about spanking as a disciplinary practice and how parents express these beliefs online. Method: Five million publicly available tweets were collected from self-identified stay-at-home parents. Tweets were screened for discipline and spanking content. A qualitative analysis was conducted on the final set of tweets (N = 648). Results: Stay-at-home parents were most likely to tweet about information related to discipline and spanking compared to tweets that made up other global themes (e.g., discipline tips). Parents most commonly posted tweets that reflected their anti-spanking beliefs compared to tweets that made up other subthemes (e.g., pro-spanking). Tweets in support of spanking emerged as well, with fathers being more likely than mothers to tweet about pro-spanking beliefs and desires. However, mothers were more likely than fathers to tweet about pro-spanking behaviors. Conclusion: Our results provide evidence that stay-at-home parents turn to Twitter to obtain disciplinary information and disclose their anti-spanking and pro-spanking beliefs. Anti-spanking tweets potentially reflect changing social norms and suggest that some stay-at-home parents on Twitter may be engaging in selective self-presentation. Clinical significance: Twitter may be one avenue to use for interventions to set social norms that aim to reduce parental corporal punishment.

This study examined if, compared to White and African American children, maternal spanking of American Indian children was associated with child externalizing behavior problems. Using a community-based sample of 3,632 children (1,183 White, 2,183 African American, 266 American Indian), multiple-group autoregressive cross-lagged models examined the associations between maternal spanking and child externalizing behavior across the first 5 years of life. Rates of spanking for American Indian and White children were similar at all three time points (age 1, age 3, and age 5). When comparing White and American Indian groups, maternal spanking at age 1 predicted child externalizing behavior at age 3 (White: β = .10, p < .001; American Indian: β = .08, p < .01), and maternal spanking at age 3 predicted child externalizing behavior at age 5 (White: β = .09, p < .05; American Indian: β = .08, p < .01). When comparing African American and American Indian groups, maternal spanking at age 1 predicted child externalizing behavior at age 3 (African American: β = .08, p < .01; American Indian: β = .06, p < .001), and maternal spanking at age 3 predicted child externalizing behavior at age 5 (African American: β = .08, p < .001; American Indian: β = .07, p < .001). Structural invariance tests suggested that the associations observed among American Indian children were not distinguishable from those observed among White and African American children. Results of this study can be interpreted in light of the recent American Academy of Pediatrics statement that encourages pediatricians to counsel parents against the use of physical punishment. Similar to White and African American families, American Indian families may benefit from reducing or eliminating the use of physical punishment.

Background The theory of allostatic load has gained momentum in perinatal research to understand the biological pathways of the impact of maternal chronic stress on adverse perinatal outcomes. However, due to physiological changes of pregnancy, including large variations across gestation, the extent to which allostatic load measured in pregnancy is valid has not been queried in depth. Objectives This study aimed to assess the gestational patterns of selected individual allostatic load indicators and to explore whether a pregnancy allostatic load index score had face validity in relation to chronic sociodemographic stress. Design This is a secondary analysis using data from the 1999–2006 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Methods A total of 1056 pregnant women were included for analyses. Using ten physiological indicators commonly included in an index of allostatic load, we described individual indicator and index score patterns across gestation and assessed differences in allostatic load index scores between women with and without sociodemographic stress. Findings The average allostatic load index score at any gestational month was not statistically significantly different from the average allostatic load index score in the non-pregnant sample. We also found the allostatic load index score remained steady across gestational month, despite very different gestational patterns of individual allostatic load indicators, as long as gestation-specific risk quartiles were used to calculate the allostatic load index score. Face validity was affirmed via higher allostatic load index scores in women with sociodemographic stress compared to those without such stress. Conclusion Our study suggests that measuring allostatic load in pregnancy is valid for reflecting women's true physiological functions and chronic stress, but gestational age should be considered when scoring the allostatic load index for women at different gestational age. Implications for practice As a valid measure of chronic stress, a pregnancy allostatic load index may contribute to research on health inequities and perinatal outcomes.

Objective To examine whether the longitudinal associations between maternal spanking and child externalizing behavior are moderated by attachment style. Methods This study used data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (n = 2211), a large cohort sample of low-income urban families. Multiple-group autoregressive cross-lagged models examined the associations between maternal spanking and child externalizing behavior when children were ages 1, 3, and 5. Moderation by attachment style was examined using structural invariance testing. Results For children with an insecure mother-child attachment style, spanking at age 1 was associated with externalizing behavior at age 3. However, for children with a secure mother-child attachment style, the association between maternal spanking at age 1 and child externalizing behavior at age 3 was absent. Attachment style did not moderate the association between maternal spanking at age 3 and externalizing behavior at age 5, suggesting that spanking at age 3 is associated with deleterious outcomes at age 5, regardless of attachment style. Conclusions Results suggest that even in the context of a secure attachment style, spanking is associated with adverse outcomes in early childhood. Findings support the American Academy of Pediatrics 2018 policy statement, which encourages parents to avoid spanking when disciplining children. Results suggest that children, regardless of attachment style, may benefit from policies and services that promote non-violent forms of discipline.

OBJECTIVE: Unmarried mothers have high rates of smoking, including during late pregnancy and after pregnancy, thus increasing their children’s risk for negative health outcomes associated with maternal tobacco use. Few studies have examined whether partners’ smoking exacerbates or attenuates maternal smoking risk. The current study examines how fathers’ behaviors during the third trimester of pregnancy and after pregnancy influence maternal smoking across the first 9 years of a child’s life. METHOD: Unmarried parents (N = 2,580 pairs) from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study were measured four times. Paternal and maternal tobacco use during the third trimester was assessed via retrospective report at baseline (the time of the child’s birth). Parents also reported tobacco use 1 year, 5 years, and 9 years later. Paternal supportive behaviors were self-reported at baseline. RESULTS: Paternal tobacco use predicted maternal tobacco use. This association was moderated by paternal supportive behaviors as reported by fathers (b = 0.51, 95% CI [0.22, 0.81], p = .001; adjusted odds ratio = 1.67, 95% CI [1.24, 2.25]). Paternal smoking predicted maternal smoking for fathers who reported both high and low levels of supportive behaviors, but this relationship was stronger for fathers who engaged in the highest levels of support. CONCLUSIONS: Unmarried fathers’ smoking had a stronger relationship to maternal smoking during late pregnancy and postpartum when fathers engaged in more support behaviors. The results of this study suggest that targeting fathers’ smoking cessation may help improve the effectiveness of tobacco cessation programs for at-risk unmarried mothers.

A father’s involvement in prenatal care engenders health benefits for both mothers and children. While this information can help practitioners improve family health, low paternal involvement in prenatal care remains a challenge. The present study tested a simple, easily scalable intervention to promote father involvement by increasing men’s feelings of comfort and expectations of involvement in prenatal settings through three randomized control trials. Borrowing from social psychological theory on identity safety, the three studies tested whether the inclusion of environmental cues that represent men and fatherhood in prenatal care offices influenced men’s beliefs and behavioral intentions during the perinatal period. Men in studies 1 and 3 viewed online videos of purported prenatal care offices, while men in study 2 visited the office in person. Those who viewed or were immersed in a father-friendly prenatal care office believed that doctors had higher expectations of father involvement compared to treatment-as-usual. This perception predicted greater parenting confidence, comfort, and behavioral intentions to learn about the pregnancy and engage in healthy habits, such as avoiding smoking and alcohol during their partner’s pregnancy. Study 3 replicated these studies with an online sample of expectant fathers. The results suggest that shifting environment office cues can signal fathering norms to men in prenatal settings, with healthier downstream behavior intentions.

This study examines the use of emergency management laws as a policy response to fiscal emergencies in urban areas. Focusing on one Midwestern Rust Belt state, we use a mixed methods approach – integrating chronology of legislative history, analysis of Census data, and an ethnographic case study – to examine the dynamics of emergency management laws from a social justice perspective. Analysis of Census data showed that emergency management policies disproportionately affected African Americans and poor families. Analysis indicated that in one state, 51% of African American residents and 16.6% of Hispanic or Latinos residents had lived in cities that were under the governance of an emergency manager at some time during 2008–2013, whereas only 2.4% of the White population similarly had lived in cities under emergency management. An ethnographic case study highlights the mechanisms by which an emergency manager hindered the ability of residents in one urban neighborhood, expected to host a large public works project, to obtain a Community Benefits Agreement intended to provide assistance to residents, most of whom were poor families with young children. We conclude with a discussion of how emergency management laws may impact social service practice and policy practice in urban communities, framed from a social justice perspective. We argue that these are not race neutral policies, given clear evidence of race and ethnic disparities in their implementation.

This study reports the results of a Community-Based Participatory Research (CBPR) needs assessment of programs, services, and support systems for fathers in the City of Detroit, Michigan. The goal of this needs assessment was to assess the availability of parenting support services to men through multiple perspectives. To enact a CBPR approach, the research team collected qualitative data through interviews with service providers and community dialogues with fathers and consulted a community advisory board for further guidance on the research efforts. The research team engaged in member checking to improve the accuracy and credibility of study findings. Results indicated that both service providers and fathers agreed that very few parenting support services are available to fathers, particularly young African American fathers, and they also largely agreed in establishing priorities to address community fathers' parenting needs. Practice implications include the need for greater collaboration across service sectors and for greater outreach, possibly through technology, to young fathers.

Many parents believe that spanking is an effective way to promote children's positive behavior, yet few studies have examined spanking and the development of social competence. Using information from 3,279 families with young children who participated in a longitudinal study of urban families, this study tested competing hypotheses regarding whether maternal spanking or maternal warmth predicted increased social competence and decreased child aggression over time and which parent behavior was a stronger predictor of these changes. The frequency of maternal spanking was unrelated to maternal warmth. Findings from cross-lagged path models indicated that spanking was not associated with children's social competence, but spanking predicted increases in child aggression. Conversely, maternal warmth predicted children's greater social competence but was not associated with aggression. Warmth was a significantly stronger predictor of children's social competence than spanking, suggesting that warmth may be a more effective way to promote children's social competence than spanking.

Robust research shows that parenting stress is associated with reduced parental sensitivity toward their children (i.e., parental responsiveness), thus negatively influencing child outcomes. While there is strong research supporting these associations, most studies utilize self-report measures of responsiveness and exclude fathers. This study examines whether observed parental responsiveness mediates the relationship between parenting stress and child cognitive development, prosocial behavior, and behavior problems in a large sample of diverse low-income families. Data were obtained from the Building Strong Families Project (N=1,173). Dyadic bootstrapped mediation models were estimated in Mplus. For mothers and fathers, parenting stress was negatively associated with responsiveness (B = −.08, 95% CI = [−.14, −.02], p = .012), and responsiveness was positively associated with child cognitive development (B = .15, 95% CI = [.11, .19], p < .001) and child prosocial behavior (B = .12, 95% CI = [.08, .15], p < .001). Mothers’ responsiveness was negatively associated with child behavior problems (B = −.07, 95% CI = [−.13, −.01], p = .020), but fathers’ responsiveness was not (B = −.01, 95% CI = [−.06, .05], p = .814). For mothers and fathers, parenting stress was indirectly related to child cognitive development and prosocial behavior via responsiveness. Indirect effects were not found for mothers or fathers when predicting child behavior problems. To improve children’s wellbeing, interventions may consider strengthening responsiveness and reducing parental stress among both mothers and fathers.