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The aging leads to a weakening of the steroid function of the testes and a decrease in their sensitivity to gonadotropins. However, the mechanisms of this are poorly understood. The aim of this work was to study the stimulating effects of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) and TP03, a low-molecular-weight agonist of luteinizing hormone (LH)/hCG receptor, on testosterone (T) production and the expression of steroidogenic proteins in young (3 months) and aging (15 months) male rats, and to investigate the activity of the adenylyl cyclase system in the membranes isolated from the testes of rats. The treatment with hCG (100 IU/rat/day) and TP03 (15 mg/rat/day) was carried out for 3 days. In the testes of aging rats the stimulation of adenylyl cyclase (AC) by gonadotropin and guanine nucleotide was decreased, indicating a weakening of the coupling of LH/hCG receptor and Gs protein, the main components of the adenylyl cyclase system regulating the steroidogenesis. In elderly rats, the T level in the blood and the expression of the Star, Cyp11a1 and Cyp17a1 genes encoding the StAR protein and the steroidogenic enzymes cytochromes P450scc and P450-17α in the testes were decreased. With increasing age, the stimulating effect of hCG and TP03 on the T production was weakened, despite the different mechanisms of their action on LH/hCG receptor. The treatment of both young and aging rats with hCG led to an increase in the expression of the genes encoding StAR, P450scc and dehydrogenase 3β-HSD, while in aging rats, in addition, the expression of the Hsd17B gene was increased and in young rats the expression of the genes encoding Р450-17α and 17β-HSD was reduced. The treatment of in young rats with TP03 led to an increase in the Star and Cyp17a1 expression, and the TP03 treatment of aging rats increased the Star and Hsd17B expression. Thus, in the testes of aging rats, the coupling between LH/hCG receptor and Gs-protein and the sensitivity of LH/hCG receptor to agonists were weakened, which leads to a decrease in the hCG- and TP03-induced production of T, and the basal and LH/hCG receptor agonists-stimulated levels of gene expression for some steroidogenic proteins were changed.

Under obesity, a component of metabolic syndrome (MS), macro- and microcirculation are attenuated, which is associated with abnormalities of NO-dependent cascades and leads to pathology of the cardiovascular system. Among the activators of NO-synthases (NOS), the enzymes catalyzing NO synthesis, are thyroid hormones. Since obesity and MS are characterized by reduced functions, of the thyroid gland, the replacement therapy with thyroid hormones, possessing the properties of vasodilators, is one of approached to restore functioning of the cardiovascular system. However, data on influence of thyroid hormones on NOS activity in obesity are not currently available. The aim of this work was to study the effect of four-week treatment of rats with obesity induced by high-fat diet with L-thyroxine (at a daily dose of 20 mg-kg) on functional activity of total NOS, as well as one endothelial (eNOS) and neuronal (nNOS) isoforms of the enzyme in the brain, myocardium and skeletal muscles of animals. In obese rats the decrease of thyroid hormones level, impaired glucose toleranse, and dyslipidemia were detected. In the myocardium and skeletal muscles of obese rats the activity of total NOS and eNOS was strongly decreased, whereas in the brain the activity of these enzymes was not significantly changed. Long-term treatment of obese rats with thyroxine led to a significant increase in activity of total NOS and eNOS in the myocardium and skeletal muscles and to an increase in activity of total NOS and nNOS in the brain, with the enzyme activity exceeding that in control. In healthy animals treated with thyroxine a significant increase in activity of total NOS and eNOS in the myocardium and skeletal muscles and in activity of total NOS in the brain was also eNOS in the myocardium and skeletal muscles and in activity of total NOS in the brain was also found. A significant contribution to the increasing activity of total NOS in obese rats and healthy animals treated with thyroxine belonged to the inducible isoform of the enzyme whose activity was found by calculation. Thus, the four-week thyroxine treatment of obese rats with deficiency of thyroid hormones led to a complete restoration of activity of total NOS and eNOS, reduced in obesity, in the myocardium and skeletal muscles which indicated the prospects of thyroxine therapy for treatment of vascular pathology in obesity and MS.

The stimulating effect of norepinephrine, isoproterenol and selective β-adrenoceptor (β3-AR) agonists BRL 37344 and CL 316.243 on the adenylyl cyclase signaling system (ACSS) in the brain and myocardium of young and mature rats (disease induction at 2 and 4 months, respectively) with experimental obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM2), and the influence of long-term treatment of animals with intranasal insulin (I-I) were studied. The AC stimulatory effects of β-agonist isoproterenol in animals with obesity and DM2 was shown to be practically unchanged. The respective effects of norepinephrine on the AC activity were attenuated in the brain of young and mature rats and in the myocardium if mature rats, and the I-I treatment led to their partial recovery. In the brain and myocardium of mature rats with obesity and DM2, the enhancement of the AC stimulatory effects of β3-AR agonists was observed, white in young rats the influence of the same pathological conditions was lacking. The I-I treatment decreased the AC stimulatory effects of β3-agonists to their levels in the control. Since functional disruption of the adrenergic agonist-sensitive ACSS can lead to metabolic syndrome and DM2, the recovery of this system by the I-I treatment offers one of the ways to correct these diseases and their complications in the nervous and cardiovascular systems.

Biguanide metformin, which is widely used for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus, improves carbohydrate and lipid metabolism and shows a pronounced cardio- and neuroprotective effects. It is assumed that an important role in these effects of metformin plays its ability to positively influence the activity of NO-synthase catalyzing the synthesis of NO, the most important vasodilator, and the activity of hormone-sensitive adenylyl cyclase signaling system (ACSS. To prove this, we have carried out a study whose purpose was to study the effect of long-term metformin treatment on the metabolic rates in obese rats, as well as on the activity of ACSS and NO-synthase in the myocardium and the brain of these animals. The metformin treatment of Wistar rats with obesity induced by high-fat diet was carried out for 2 months (daily dose of 200 mg/kg). The treatment with metformin led to a decrease in body weight and body fat, reduced glucose and insulin levels as well as reduced insulin resistance index HOMA-IR, improved glucose tolerance, and decreased the level of atherogenic forms of cholesterol. In the myocardium of obese rats, the attenuation of ACSS stimulation induced by the agonists of β1/β2-adrenergic receptors (AR) and the strengthening of β3-AR signaling has been found. At the same time, in the myocardium of animals treated with metformin, the regulation of ACSS by adrenergic agonists was restored, and the ratio of β-AR-signaling pathways returned to normal. In the brain of rats treated with metformin, adenylyl cyclase stimulating effects of serotonin and agonists of type 4 melanocortin receptors, which had been weakenend for obesity, were restored. Metformin treatment completely restored activity of total and endothelial NO-synthase in the myocardium decreased in obesity. It as also shown that metformin treatment induced hyperactivation of NO-synthase in the myocardium and brain of healthy animals. Thus, we conclude that the effects of metformin identified by us in rats with long-term treatment of obesity may explain cardio- and neuroprotective influence of this drug.

The functional state of the adenylyl cyclase signaling system (ACSS) and its regulation by hormones, the inhibitors of adenylyl cyclase (AC)--somatostatin (SST) in the brain and myocardium and 5-nonyloxytryptamine (5-NOT) in the brain of rats of different ages (5- and 7-month-old) with experimental obesity and a combination of obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM2), and the effect of long-term treatment of animals with intranasally administered insulin (II) on ACSS were studied. It was shown that the basal AC activity in rats with obesity and DM2 was increased in the myocardium, and to the lesser extent in the brain, the treatment with II reducing this parameter. The AC stimulating effects of forskolin are decreased in the myocardium, but not in the brain, of rats with obesity and DM2. The treatment with II restored the AC action of forskolin in the 7-month-old animals, but has little effect on it in the 5-month-old rats. In obesity the basal AC activity and its stimulation by forskolin varied insignificantly and weakly changed in treatment of animals with II. The AC inhibitory effects of SST and 5-NOT in the investigated pathology are essentially attenuated, the effect of SST to the greatest extent, which we believe to be associated with a reduction in the functional activity of Gi-proteins. The II treatment of animals with obesity and with a combination of obesity and DM2 restored completely or partially the AC inhibiting effects of hormones, to the greatest extent in the brain. Since impaired functioning of ACSS is one of the causes of the metabolic syndrome and DM2, their elimination by treatments with II can be an effective approach to treat these diseases and their CNS and cardiovascular system complications.

In smooth muscles of mollusc Anodonta cygnea, hormones produce regulatory effects on the adenylyl cyclase (AC) signaling system via receptors of the serpentine (biogenic amine, isoproterenol, glucagon) and of tyrosine kinase (insulin) types. Intracellular mechanisms of their action are interconnected. Use of hormones, their antagonists, and pertussis toxin at the combined action of insulin and biogenic amines or of glucagon on the AC activity allows revealing possible intersection points in mechanisms of their action. The combined effect of insulin and serotonin or of glucagon leads to a decrease of stimulation of AC by these hormones, whereas at action of insulin and isoproterenol the AC-stimulatory effect of insulin is blocked, while the AC-inhibitory effect of isoproterenol is preserved both in the presence and in the absence of the non-hydrolyzed GTP analog - guanylylimidodiphosphate (GppNHp). Specific blocking of the AC-stimulatory serotonin effect by cyproheptadine - an antagonist of serotonin receptors - did not affect stimulation of AC by insulin. Beta-adrenoblockers (propranolol and alprenolol) interfered with inhibition of the AC activity by isoproterenol, but did not change the AC stimulation by insulin. Pertussis toxin blocked the AC-inhibitory effect of isoproterenol and attenuated the AC-stimulatory effect of insulin. Thus, in muscles of the mollusc Anodonta cygnea there have been revealed negative interrelations between the AC system, which are realized at the combined effect of insulin and serotonin or of glucagon, probably at the level of receptor of the serpentine type (serotonin, glucagon), while at action of insulin and isoproterenol - at the level of interaction of G1 protein and AC.

For the first time we found in myometrium of the women and pregnant women that adenylyl cyclase (AC) stimulating effects of relaxin, insulin and insulin growth factor 1 are realized via six-component AC signaling mechanisms involving the following signaling chain: receptor-tyrosine kinase ==> Gi protein (beta gamma dimmer) ==> phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase ==> protein kinase C (zeta) ==> Gs protein ==> adenylyl cyclase (AC), which are similar to the discovered adenylyl cyclase signaling mechanisms of insulin and relaxin action in vertebrates (rat) and invertebrates (mollusk). The effect of relaxin is more pronounced as compared with other peptides (relaxin > insulin > insulin-like growth factor-1) in myometrium of pregnant women. It is connected with the specific role ofrelaxin as main regulator of reproductive functions. For the first time we revealed the functional defects in distal parts of adenylyl cyclase signaling mechanisms of the insulin superfamily peptides action in the condition type-2 diabetes (the increase of the basal adenylyl cyclase activity and decrease of the peptide-stimulated AX activity in presence of guanilylimidodiphosphate). The defects are localized on the level of Gs protein, adenylyl cyclase and their functional coupling. The data obtained confirm our conception about molecular defects in hormoneregulated adenylyl cyclase system as a key reason of type-2 diabetes.

Based on the earlier discovered by the authors adenylyl cyclase signaling mechanisms (ACSM) of action of insulin and relaxin, the study was performed of the presence a similar action mechanism of another representative of the insulin superfamily--the insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) in the muscle tissues of vertebrates (rat) and invertebrates (mollusc). For the first time there was detected participation of ACSM in the IGF-1 action, including the six component signaling cascade: receptor tyrosine kinase --> G(i)-protein (betagamma-dimer) --> phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI-3-K) --> protein kinase Czeta (PKCzeta) --> G(-)protein --> adenylyl cyclase. By this mechanism structural-functional organization at postreceptor stages, in coincides completely with the mechanism of insulin and relaxin, which we revealed in rat skeletal muscle. In smooth muscle of the mollusc Anodonta cygnea this ACSM of action of IGF-1 has only one difference--the protein kinase C included in this mechanism is represented not by PKCzeta isoform, but by another isoform close to PKCepsilon of the vertabrate brain. Earlier we revealed the same differences in muscle of this mollusc in the ACSM of action of insulin and relaxin.