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The association between psychosocial factors and disability is less clear. This study investigated the biological and psychosocial (employment and psychological distress) factors associated with level of disability in an adult sample in South Africa. Data were analysed from a cross-sectional survey among adults aged 18-64 (n = 4974). Multiple linear regression was used to investigate the associations of the selected variables with disability. The mean percentage score on the WHODAS scale of disability was 5.31% (95% CI: 4.74-5.88). Age (p < 0.001) and race (p = 0.0002) were significantly associated with disability, and history of stroke (β = 7.19, 95% CI: 3.19-11.20) and heart-related conditions (β = 2.08, 95% CI: [0.23-3.93) showed positive associations. Of the psychosocial variables, psychological distress (β = 10.49 [8.63-12.35]) showed a strong positive association while employment (−1.62 [−2.36 to −0.88]) showed a negative association with disability. The association between demographic factors, medical conditions and increased disability confirms the findings in the literature. The finding that psychological distress is associated with increased disability has not been frequently reported. This study highlights specific psychosocial targets that may be usefully addressed by health policies and interventions in order to improve disability management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: South Africa is facing a convergence of communicable diseases (CDs) and non-communicable diseases (NCDs). There are limited data about how tobacco use contributes to the burden of these conditions, especially in rural populations., Methods: We analyzed the associations between current tobacco smoking and four important CDs and NCDs in Vukuzazi, a cross-sectional study of individuals aged 15 years and older conducted between 2018-2020 in a demographic surveillance area in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Data on HIV, active tuberculosis (TB), hypertension and diabetes mellitus were collected via direct measurement from participants., Results: Of 18,024 participants (68% female, median age 37 years [interquartile range 23-56 years]), 1,301 (7.2%) reported current smoking. Prevalence of HIV infection was similarly high among people who currently smoked (34.6%) and people who had never smoked (33.9%). However, among people living with HIV (PLWH), there was a higher prevalence of detectable viremia in people reporting current smoking compared to people who reported never smoking (28.8% vs. 16.6%; p-value < 0.001). Active TB was more prevalent in people who currently smoked than in people who never smoked (3.1% vs 1.3%, p < 0.001). In contrast, the prevalence of hypertension and diabetes mellitus were lower in people reporting current smoking than in people reporting never smoking (17.1% vs 26.0% (p < 0.001), and 2.5% vs 10.2% (p < 0.001), respectively). In sex-stratified multiple logistic regression analyses that were adjusted for potential confounding factors (including body mass index for the NCDs), the magnitude of differences in CD prevalence between people who currently smoked and people who never smoked decreased, whereas the lower prevalence of NCDs among people reporting current smoking persisted., Conclusions: In rural South Africa, smoking is associated with higher prevalence of active TB, and people with HIV who smoke have worse disease control. In contrast, hypertension and diabetes mellitus are less common in those who smoke. Interventions to screen for TB among those who smoke and to address smoking among people with HIV may be particularly impactful., Competing Interests: Declarations. Ethics approval and consent to participate: Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the Biomedical Research Ethics Committee at the University of KwaZulu-Natal (BE560/17), the Observational / Interventions Research Ethics Committee at London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine (14722), Mass General Brigham Human Research Committee at the Mass General Brigham (2018P001802), and the University of Alabama at Birmingham (UAB)’s Institutional Review Board for Human Use (300007237). All methods were performed in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations. Informed consent was obtained from adult participants and assent from minors whose parent/guardian had provided consent. Consent for publication: Not applicable. Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Background: It is unclear how rising obesity among people with HIV (PWH) impacts their risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus (diabetes). We examined associations between HIV, prevalent diabetes and adiposity among South African PWH and their peers without HIV (PWOH)., Methods: HIV status was ascertained by antibody testing. Diabetes was defined as current use of oral hypoglycemics, insulin, and/or HbA1c ≥6.5%. Adiposity was measured by body mass index (BMI), waist circumference and waist-to-height ratio. Their associations were examined using sex-stratified multivariable fractional polynomial generalized linear models, reporting adjusted prevalence and prevalence ratios (adjPR)., Results: The mean age among 1,254 PWH and 4,381 PWOH was 41 years (95%CI 28, 56). The prevalence of diabetes among males was similar between PWH [11.3% (7.1, 15.5)] and PWOH [9.8% (8.5, 11.1); p=0.740]. By contrast, diabetes prevalence was higher among female PWOH [15.7% (14.4, 17.0)] than female PWH [10.5 (8.3, 12.8)%; adjPR: 0.67 (0.51, 0.82); p<0.001]. This difference was accentuated with obesity but reversed with leanness. At BMI ≥25 kg/m 2 , female PWH had lower diabetes prevalence [adjPR: 0.58 (0.41, 0.76); p<0.001] than female PHIV. In contrast, at BMI <18 kg/m 2 , female PWH had higher prevalence [adjPR: 1.72 (-1.53, 4.96); p=0.756] than female PWOH., Conclusion: We found sex-specific differences in the relationship between adiposity and diabetes prevalence by HIV serostatus in South Africa. Notably, females living with obesity and HIV had lower prevalence of diabetes than females living with obesity and without HIV, which may have particular implications for diabetes prevention programs in the region., Competing Interests: The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article., (© The Author(s) 2024.)

Aim: To assess the clinical utility of novel anthropometric indices and other traditional anthropometric indices in identifying the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D) among South African adult females., Methods: In the first South African National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (SANHANES-1), traditional [body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (WC), waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), and waist-to-height ratio (WHtR)] and novel [a-body shape index (ABSI), abdominal volume index (AVI), body adiposity index (BAI), body roundness index (BRI), conicity index (CI), and Clínica Universidad de Navarra-Body Adiposity Estimator (CUN-BAE)] anthropometric indices were assessed. T2D was diagnosed using glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) ≥ 6.5% among participants without known T2D. Basic statistics and multiple regression analyses were explored the association between anthropometric indices and newly diagnosed T2D. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis was used to measure the predictive ability of both traditional and novel indices., Results: Among 2 623 participants, 384 (14.6%) had newly diagnosed T2D. All anthropometric indices mean values were significantly higher among participants with T2D (most p < 0.001). Higher mean values increased T2D odds e.g., in the model adjusted for age, employment, residence, and population group, odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) for T2D with some of anthropometric indices were: 1.86 (1.60-2.15) for WC, 1.84 (1.59-2.13) for WHtR, 1.73 (1.51-1.99) for AVI, 1.71 (1.49-1.96) for BRI and 1.86 (1.57-2.20) for CUN-BAE. The top quartile for all indices had the highest T2D odds (p < 0.05). These outcomes were the highest for WC, AVI, and CUN-BAE and remained so even after removing the confounding effects of age, employment, population group, and residence. Based on the ROC analysis, none of the anthropometrical indices performed excellently (i.e., had an area under the curve [AUC] > 0.80). The WC, WHtR, AVI, BRI, and CUN-BAE, however, performed acceptably (AUCs 0.70-0.79), while also exhibiting corresponding cutoff values of 86.65 cm, 0.57, 15.52, 3.83, and 38.35, respectively., Conclusions: The data shows that traditional and novel anthropometric indices similarly identifying newly diagnosed T2D among adult South African females. We recommend the continuing the use of traditional indices, as they are affordable and easy to use in our setting., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Introduction: As access to effective antiretroviral therapy (ART) has improved globally, tobacco-related illnesses, including cardiovascular disease, cancer and chronic respiratory conditions, account for a growing proportion of deaths among people with HIV (PWH). We estimated the impact of tobacco smoking and smoking cessation on life expectancy among PWH in South Africa., Methods: In a microsimulation model, we simulated 18 cohorts of PWH with virologic suppression, each homogenous by sex, initial age (35y/45y/55y) and smoking status (current/former/never). Input parameters were from data sources published between 2008 and 2022. We used South African data to estimate age-stratified mortality hazard ratios: 1.2-2.3 (females)/1.1-1.9 (males) for people with current versus never smoking status; and 1.0-1.3 (females)/1.0-1.5 (males) for people with former versus never smoking status, depending on age at cessation. We assumed smoking status remains unchanged during the simulation; people who formerly smoked quit at model start. Simulated PWH face a monthly probability of disengagement from care and virologic non-suppression. In sensitivity analysis, we varied smoking-associated and HIV-associated mortality risks. Additionally, we estimated the total life-years gained if a proportion of all virologically suppressed PWH stopped smoking., Results: Forty-five-year-old females/males with HIV with virologic suppression who smoke lose 5.3/3.7 life-years compared to PWH who never smoke. Smoking cessation at age 45y adds 3.4/2.4 life-years. Simulated PWH who continue smoking lose more life-years from smoking than from HIV (females, 5.3 vs. 3.0 life-years; males, 3.7 vs. 2.6 life-years). The impact of smoking and smoking cessation increase as smoking-associated mortality risks increase and HIV-associated mortality risks, including disengagement from care, decrease. Model results are most sensitive to the smoking-associated mortality hazard ratio; varying this parameter results in 1.0-5.1 life-years gained from cessation at age 45y. If 10-25% of virologically suppressed PWH aged 30-59y in South Africa stopped smoking now, 190,000-460,000 life-years would be gained., Conclusions: Among virologically suppressed PWH in South Africa, tobacco smoking decreases life expectancy more than HIV. Integrating tobacco cessation interventions into HIV care, as endorsed by the World Health Organization, could substantially improve life expectancy., (© 2024 The Author(s). Journal of the International AIDS Society published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of International AIDS Society.)

Background: The COVID-19 pandemic has placed immense pressure on healthcare workers (HCWs)., Objectives: This study sought to find the prevalence and factors associated with psychological distress among HCWs in South Africa during the beginning phases of COVID-19 and make relevant recommendations., Method: The survey was administered online through a data-free platform. Data were benchmarked to the national population of over 500 000 healthcare professionals in South Africa. Multiple logistic regressions were used to determine association between psychological distress and potential explanatory variables., Results: A total of 7607 healthcare professionals participated in the study (1760 nurses, 2843 medical practitioners and 3004 other healthcare professionals). Half of the nurses, 41% of medical practitioners and 47% of other healthcare professionals were classified as psychologically distressed. Those who were of older age, provided with well-being support services and having a positive outlook on the healthcare system were significantly less likely to be distressed. Being female medical practitioners and female other healthcare professions, requesting routine counselling, being concerned about not having enough leave and that their life insurance policy did not cover COVID-19 were more likely to be distressed., Conclusion: Psychological well-being of HCWs in South Africa is at risk. We recommend that psychological distress of HCWs be routinely assessed and that routine counselling, well-being support services, appropriate hazardous leave and insurance be provided to all HCWs.Contribution: This study adds to the literature on the psychological distress faced by HCWs in South Africa during COVID-19.

Background: The reporting of adverse drug reactions associated with drug-resistant tuberculosis (DR-TB) medication is important for pharmacovigilance, especially in high-burden countries such as South Africa. With DR-TB treatment being so dynamic, it is important to understand adverse event reporting practices at specialised facilities., Objectives: The study aimed to understand the adverse drug reaction (ADR) reporting practices at DR-TB treatment facilities in South Africa., Method: Interviews were conducted with healthcare workers at specialised DR-TB facilities. This was to collect data on demographics, pharmacovigilance training, and determine attitudes and practices towards reporting adverse events. A checklist was developed to review the most recent adverse event forms captured at the facility., Results: Most participants did not have adverse event reporting training since their initial training but were confident that they could complete a form themselves. Most participants could correctly identify the major adverse events associated with DR-TB medication, but some deemed non-adverse events as plausible. Adverse event report forms were not standardised with most participants deeming further training and regular feedback as reasons to report ADRs., Conclusion: Standardisation of adverse event report forms used and the establishment of regular reporting will increase adverse event reporting at DR-TB facilities. Continuous training, empowerment and expansion of staff categories eligible to report adverse events will enhance and sustain such practice., Contribution: The study highlights challenges faced by healthcare professionals in reporting adverse events., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article., (© 2023. The Authors.)

Background: This study evaluates the performance of logistic regression (LR) and random forest (RF) algorithms to model obesity among female adolescents in South Africa., Methods: Data was analysed on 375 females aged 15-17 from the South African National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2011/2012. The primary outcome was obesity, defined as body mass index (BMI) ≥ 30 kg/m 2 . A total of 31 explanatory variables were included, ranging from socio-economic, demographic, family history, dietary and health behaviour. RF and LR models were run using imbalanced data as well as after oversampling, undersampling, and hybrid sampling of the data., Results: Using the imbalanced data, the RF model performed better with higher precision, recall, F1 score, and balanced accuracy. Balanced accuracy was highest with the hybrid data (0.618 for RF and 0.668 for LR). Using the hybrid balanced data, the RF model performed better (F1-score = 0.940 for RF vs. 0.798 for LR)., Conclusion: The model with the highest overall performance metrics was the RF model both before balancing the data and after applying hybrid balancing. Future work would benefit from using larger datasets on adolescent female obesity to assess the robustness of the models.

South Africa is experiencing a rapidly growing diabetes epidemic that threatens its healthcare system. Research on the determinants of diabetes in South Africa receives considerable attention due to the lifestyle changes accompanying South Africa's rapid urbanization since the fall of Apartheid. However, few studies have investigated how segments of the Black South African population, who continue to endure Apartheid's institutional discriminatory legacy, experience this transition. This paper explores the association between individual and area-level socioeconomic status and diabetes prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control within a sample of Black South Africans aged 45 years or older in three municipalities in KwaZulu-Natal. Cross-sectional data were collected on 3,685 participants from February 2017 to February 2018. Individual-level socioeconomic status was assessed with employment status and educational attainment. Area-level deprivation was measured using the most recent South African Multidimensional Poverty Index scores. Covariates included age, sex, BMI, and hypertension diagnosis. The prevalence of diabetes was 23% (n = 830). Of those, 769 were aware of their diagnosis, 629 were receiving treatment, and 404 had their diabetes controlled. Compared to those with no formal education, Black South Africans with some high school education had increased diabetes prevalence, and those who had completed high school had lower prevalence of treatment receipt. Employment status was negatively associated with diabetes prevalence. Black South Africans living in more deprived wards had lower diabetes prevalence, and those residing in wards that became more deprived from 2001 to 2011 had a higher prevalence diabetes, as well as diabetic control. Results from this study can assist policymakers and practitioners in identifying modifiable risk factors for diabetes among Black South Africans to intervene on. Potential community-based interventions include those focused on patient empowerment and linkages to care. Such interventions should act in concert with policy changes, such as expanding the existing sugar-sweetened beverage tax., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist., (Copyright: © 2023 Madela et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.)

Background: Amidst widespread public health recommendations and availability of COVID-19 vaccinations, half of South African adults are vaccinated against COVID-19. This study investigated the socio-behavioral determinants of vaccine hesitancy in South Africa, where vaccine hesitancy was separated into unwilling ness and uncertainty to take a COVID-19 vaccine., Methods: Data was collected from a large-scale public survey during June-October 2021 that included online and telephonic surveys. Vaccination hesitancy was based on the question "When available, would you take the COVID 19 vaccine?," with responses categorized into those who were willing, unwilling, and uncertain about taking a COVID-19 vaccine. Multinomial regression examined the association between socio-behavioral variables and vaccine hesitancy., Results: Overall, 73.8% reported they would definitely or probably take the vaccine, 16.4% were uncertain and 9.9% reported they probably or definitely would not ( n  = 16,988). Younger age, White and Colored population groups, no influenza vaccination history, previous vaccination refusal, knowing someone who experienced a serious vaccination side-effect, misperceptions about vaccine benefits, cultural or religious discouragement from taking a COVID-19 vaccination, lack of governmental confidence, concerns about side-effects, perceived lack of safety information, and lack of trust in the pharmaceutical industry and in the information from health care providers were all associated with higher odds of being uncertain and unwilling to take a COVID-19 vaccination. Strengths of association for unwillingness and uncertainty varied by the explanatory variables. Concern about effectiveness due to fast development was associated with uncertainty to take the vaccine but not with unwillingness. Concerns about side-effects had stronger associations with uncertainty than with unwillingness, while previous vaccine refusal, misperceptions of the protective benefits of vaccines, White population group, religious/cultural discouragement, and lack of trust in the pharmaceutical industry and health care providers' information had stronger associations with unwillingness than uncertainty., Conclusion: The determinants of COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy should be addressed in interventions to improve vaccine uptake. Public health interventions and health communication can be prioritized and tailored to the different forms of vaccination hesitancy., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2023 Sewpaul, Sifunda, Gaida, Mokhele, Naidoo and Reddy.)

Background: South Africa, a middle-income country, has an adolescent fertility rate far higher than that of high-income countries. Adolescent girls and young women have an increased risk of pregnancy-related complications and lower antenatal appointment attendance rates than older adult pregnant women. Mobile health (mHealth) interventions to improve health behaviors among pregnant adolescent girls and young women in low- and middle-income countries are scarce., Objective: This paper describes the development and components of an mHealth intervention to improve antenatal appointment attendance and health behavioral determinants among pregnant adolescent girls and young women in South Africa and details the protocol for a pilot randomized controlled trial that evaluated the intervention's efficacy and user acceptability., Methods: The intervention, Teen MomConnect, sent tailored motivational behavior change and behavioral reinforcement SMS text messages to participants about antenatal appointment keeping and pregnancy behaviors. The delivery methodology of the intervention was adapted from MomConnect, an mHealth education program for pregnant women in South Africa that has nationwide coverage. In addition, participants received a face-to-face motivational interviewing session delivered by a trained research assistant. Pregnant adolescent girls and young women aged 13 to 20 years were recruited from health facilities and community networks. Participants were randomized into the control group that received the standard MomConnect health SMS text messages or the experimental group that received the Teen MomConnect intervention. Participants completed a baseline questionnaire upon enrollment in the study and a follow-up questionnaire after the end of their pregnancy. The questionnaires assessed demographic characteristics, pregnancy behaviors, and the psychosocial determinants of antenatal appointment attendance (knowledge, attitudes, social support, risk perceptions, self-efficacy, intention, and action planning). Feasibility was assessed using descriptive analyses of acceptability, study implementation processes, and perceived satisfaction with the intervention. The number of appointments attended was obtained from the participants' clinic records. Appointment attendance was compared between the control and experimental groups, as were awareness of HIV status and the psychosocial determinants of antenatal appointment attendance., Results: Participant recruitment was conducted from May 2018 to December 2018, and the questionnaire-based data collection was completed by December 2019. Overall, 412 participants were enrolled., Conclusions: This paper describes the Teen MomConnect intervention to improve antenatal appointment attendance and pregnancy health behaviors among adolescent girls and young women. The results on the intervention's preliminary efficacy and user acceptability will inform policy makers and health program officers on how tailored, age-appropriate, and motivational health behavior messages can be delivered via mobile phone to pregnant adolescent girls and young women., Trial Registration: Pan African Clinical Trial Registry (PACTR) PACTR201912734889796; https://pactr.samrc.ac.za/TrialDisplay.aspx?TrialID=9565., International Registered Report Identifier (irrid): DERR1-10.2196/43654., (©Ronel Sewpaul, Ken Resnicow, Rik Crutzen, Natisha Dukhi, Afzal Ellahebokus, Priscilla Reddy. Originally published in JMIR Research Protocols (https://www.researchprotocols.org), 13.09.2023.)

In South Africa, there are a limited number of population estimates of the prevalence of diabetes and its association with psychosocial factors. This study investigates the prevalence of diabetes and its psychosocial correlates in both the general South African population and the Black South African subpopulation using data from the SANHANES-1. Diabetes was defined as a hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) ≥6.5% or currently on diabetes treatment. Multivariate ordinary least squares and logistic regression models were used to determine factors associated with HbA1c and diabetes, respectively. The prevalence of diabetes was significantly higher among participants who identified as Indian, followed by White and Coloured people, and lowest among Black South Africans. General population models indicated that being Indian, older aged, having a family history of diabetes, and being overweight and obese were associated with HbA1c and diabetes, and crowding was inversely associated with HbA1c and diabetes. HbA1c was inversely associated with being White, having higher education, and residing in areas with higher levels of neighborhood crime and alcohol use. Diabetes was positively associated with psychological distress. The study highlights the importance of addressing the risk factors of psychological distress, as well as traditional risk factors and social determinants of diabetes, in the prevention and control of diabetes at individual and population levels.

Scheduled or routine childhood vaccinations are known for their effectiveness in eradicating fear for many life-threatening and disabling diseases and saving lives globally. This paper is aimed at assessing determinants of parents taking their children for scheduled vaccinations during the COVID-19 pandemic in South Africa. Data used for this paper were obtained from the Human Sciences Research Council's (HSRC) COVID-19 Online Survey titled "One Year Later Survey", which was conducted between 25 June and 11 October 2021 in South Africa. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was performed to achieve this study goal. Findings showed that just over half of parents (56.7%) reported taking their children for scheduled vaccinations across the country. Males were significantly less likely (aOR = 0.53 95% CI [0.45-0.61], p < 0.001) to have taken their children for scheduled vaccinations than females. Parents' experiences and views were among key determinants of parents having taken their children for scheduled vaccinations in South Africa. Parents who had never taken influenza (flu) vaccines were significantly less likely (aOR = 0.33 [0.28-039], p < 0.001) to have taken their children for scheduled vaccinations than those who had taken flu vaccines. Parents who did not know anyone who had personally experienced serious side effects to any vaccine were significantly less likely (aOR = 0.77 [0.66-0.90], p = 0.001) to have taken their children for scheduled vaccinations than those who knew anyone who had experienced them. Parents who did not think vaccines were a good way to protect communities from disease were significantly less likely (aOR = 0.50 [0.33-0.77], p = 0.001) to have taken their children for scheduled vaccinations than those who thought vaccines were a good way to protect communities from disease. These findings are of significance especially during the time when the country is still struggling to reach a substantial proportion of its population vaccinated for COVID-19. Thus, these findings may be relevant in determining parents' intentions to have their children receive the South African Department of Health recommended vaccines for their respective age group.

Social distancing behaviour is a primary preventive measure for reducing COVID-19 transmission. Improved understanding of factors associated with adherence to social distancing is vital for mitigating the impact of COVID-19 in South Africa. The study assessed adherence to social distancing and its associated factors during the state-implemented lockdown in South Africa. Data was analysed from a large-scale public survey conducted in South Africa from 8 to 29 April 2020, which was administered online and telephonically. Invitations to participate were distributed widely on local websites and social media networks, including on a data-free platform. Adherence to social distancing was measured by self-report of having engaged in close physical contact with someone outside the home. Simple and multiple logistic regression models examined the association between social distancing and potential explanatory variables. Of the 17,586 participants, 9.2% came into close physical contact with a person outside their home by hugging, kissing, or shaking hands during the past 7 days. The odds of coming into close physical contact with other people were significantly higher for males, students, and those with incorrect knowledge on physical distancing, angry attitudes about the lockdown, lack of confidence in the government response, high-risk perception, movement out of the local area, travelling to shops using public transport, households with communal water facilities and higher household size. The 25-59-year olds compared to 18-24-year olds, and the White and Indian/Asian compared to the African population groups had significantly lower odds of close physical contact with others outside the home. The study identifies subgroups of individuals for whom public health interventions to improve adherence to social distancing should be prioritised and tailored. Interventions and policies should take cognisance of the social determinants of health as well as culturally accepted greeting practices like hand shaking.

Food insecurity impacts childhood nutritional status, physical and cognitive development, and increases lifetime risk for chronic disease. Previous South African studies have examined hunger at the sub-national level without a specific focus on children and adolescents. This study determines the national prevalence of childhood food insecurity, from birth to adolescence, and identifies factors associated with hunger within the household. Individual and household-level data were extracted from the South African National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (SANHANES-1). Prevalence of food insecurity was assessed using the Community Childhood Hunger Identification Project (CCHIP) index. Multinomial logistic regression analyses were conducted on all households (with and without children) to determine the predictors of food insecurity, with additional analyses adjusting for child dependency and sociodemographic characteristics of household heads in households with children. Of 5 098 households surveyed, 68.6% had children and adolescents present (0-19 years). Of these households, 32.5% (95% Confidence Interval [CI]: 29.5-35.7) were experiencing hunger and 26.3% (95% CI: 23.9-28.8) were at risk of hunger. Among all the households, significant associations for experiencing hunger were the presence of children and adolescents: Adjusted Odds Ratio (AOR) = 1.68 (95% CI: 1.12-2.53); being female-headed: AOR = 1.53 (95% CI: 1.21-1.94) and informally-located; AOR = 1.6 (95% CI: 1.07-2.43). Of the racial groups, having a non-African household head, Coloured: AOR = 0.29 (95% CI: 0.19-0.44) and White/Indian/Asian: AOR = 0.12 (95% CI: 0.04-0.33) conferred lower odds of experiencing hunger; and, the household head having secondary/tertiary education conferred lower odds of experiencing hunger; AOR = 0.40 (95% CI: 0.28-0.56) as well as being at risk of hunger; AOR = 0.69 (95% CI: 0.52-0.92). Receiving social grants, pensions, or remittances more than doubled the odds of experiencing hunger; AOR = 2.15 (95% CI: 1.49-3.09). After adjusting for child dependency in households with children, having at least one older child (age 15-19 years old) did not change the odds of food insecurity. In summary, only 41% of South African households with children and adolescents were food secure. The associations between household head sociodemographics, household location and size on household food insecurity indicate a need for multi-sectoral interventions to bolster sustainable food systems for households with children and adolescents and to improve public protections for female-headed, African-headed and informally-located households dependent on social grants., Competing Interests: The authors declare that no competing interests exist., (Copyright: © 2022 Mkhize et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.)

Background: South Africa has several national surveys with body weight-related data, but they are not conducted regularly. Hence, data on longitudinal trends and the recent prevalence of adolescent obesity are not readily available for both national and international reporting and use. This study collectively analysed nationally representative surveys over nearly 2 decades to investigate trends in prevalence of adolescent obesity in South Africa. Furthermore, it compared these data with similar continental report for 45 countries across Europe and North America including United Kingdom, Norway, Netherland, Sweden, Azerbaijan, etc. to identify at-risk sub-population for overweight and obesity among adolescents.  METHODS: The study included primary data of adolescents (15 - 19 years) from South African national surveys (N = 27, 884; girls = 51.42%) conducted between 1998 and 2016. Adolescents' data extracted include measured weight, height, sex, parent employment status, monthly allowance received, and family socioeconomic-related variables. Data were statistically analysed and visualized using chi-square of trends, Wald statistics, odds ratio and trend plots, and compared to findings from European survey report (N = 71, 942; girls = 51.23%). South African adolescents' obesity and overweight data were categorized based on World Health Organization (WHO)'s growth chart and compared by sex to European cohort and by family socioeconomic status., Results: By 2016, 21.56% of South African adolescents were either obese or overweight, similar to the 21% prevalence reported in 2018 among European adolescents. Girls in South Africa showed higher trends for obesity and overweight compared to boys, different from Europe where, higher trends were reported among boys. South African Adolescents from upper socioeconomic families showed greater trends in prevalence of overweight and obesity than adolescents from medium and lower socioeconomic families. Mothers' employment status was significantly associated with adolescents' overweight and obesity., Conclusions: Our study shows that by 2016, the prevalence of adolescent obesity was high in South Africa - more than 1 in 5 adolescents - which is nearly similar to that in Europe, yet South African girls may be at a greater odd for overweight and obesity in contrast to Europe, as well as adolescents from high earning families. South African local and contextual factors may be driving higher prevalence in specific sub-population. Our study also shows the need for frequent health-related data collection and tracking of adolescents' health in South Africa., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

Background: Antenatal care is imperative for adolescents and young women, due to their increased risk of pregnancy-related complications. Evidence on the psychosocial determinants of antenatal attendance among this vulnerable group is lacking. This study assessed the relevance of the psychosocial sub-determinants of intention and self-efficacy to attend antenatal appointments among pregnant adolescents and young women in Cape Town, South Africa; with a view to informing behaviour change interventions., Methods: Pregnant women and girls aged 13-20 years were recruited to complete a cross-sectional questionnaire assessing their pregnancy experiences, pregnancy-related knowledge and psychosocial determinants related to antenatal care seeking. Confidence Interval Based Estimation of Relevance (CIBER) analysis was used to examine the association of the psychosocial sub-determinants with the intention and self-efficacy to attend antenatal appointments, and to establish their relevance for behaviour change interventions. The psychosocial sub-determinants comprised knowledge, risk perceptions, and peer, partner, family and individual participant attitudes., Results: The mean gestation age of participants (n=575) was 18.7 weeks, and the mean age was 18 years. Risk perceptions of experiencing preeclampsia and heavy bleeding during pregnancy or childbirth if clinic appointments are not attended had moderate mean scores and were positively correlated with intention and self-efficacy, which makes them relevant intervention targets. Several family, peer, partner and individual participant attitudes that affirmed timely appointment attendance had strong positive associations with intention and self-efficacy but their mean score were already high., Conclusions: Given the high means of the family, peer, partner and individual participant attitudes, the relevance of these attitudinal items as intervention targets was relatively low. Further studies are recommended to assess the relevance of these sub-determinants in similar populations., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

Objectives: This paper reports HIV prevalence, incidence, progress towards the UNAIDS (90-90-90) targets, and HIV drug resistance among adolescents living with HIV in South Africa. We conducted secondary analyses using data extracted from the South African national HIV prevalence surveys (2005-2017). Analyses were stratified by sex and age (10-14 and 15-19-years), presenting weighted descriptive statistics, and realised totals., Results: HIV prevalence increased from 3.0% in 2012 to 3.7% in 2017, translating to 360 582 (95% CI 302 021-419 144) HIV positive adolescents in 2017. Female adolescents bear a disproportionate HIV burden of 5.6% prevalence versus 0.7% for males. HIV incidence remained relatively stable. For the UNAIDS 90-90-90 targets, approximately 62.3% of adolescents knew their HIV status, 65.4% of whom were on antiretroviral therapy, and of these 78.1% on antiretroviral therapy had attained viral load suppression. There are knowledge gaps pertaining to the magnitude of perinatal infections and postnatal infections, and socio-behavioural risk factors for HIV transmission among adolescents in South Africa. There is still a need for focussed interventions targeting adolescent (1) gender disparities in HIV risk (2) screening for HIV, (3) sustained access and adherence to antiretroviral therapy and (3) retention in care to maintain viral load suppression., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

Purpose: South Africa has long endured a high prevalence of mental disorders at the national level, and its unique social and historical context could be a contributor to an increased risk of mental health problems. Our current understanding is limited regarding the relative importance of various social determinants to mental health challenges in South Africa, and how existing racial inequities may be explained by these determinants., Methods: This study attempted to elucidate potential social determinants of mental health in South Africa using data from the nationally representative South African National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (SANHANES-1). The main outcome of interest was psychological distress, measured with the Kessler-10 scale. Hierarchical linear regression models included covariates for demographic and socioeconomic factors, count of traumatic events, and a series of stress-related constructs. Analyses were conducted on two populations: the entire sample (n = 15,981), and the African subpopulation (n = 10,723)., Results: Regression models on the entire sample indicated racial disparities in psychological distress, with Africans experiencing higher distress than White and Coloured individuals. Results within the African sub-population indicated geo-spatial disparities, with Africans in formal urban settings experiencing higher psychological distress than those living in formal and informal rural locales. Across both samples, results indicated a cumulative association between count of stressors and traumatic events and distress., Conclusion: We found racial disparities across several mental health-related domains. Africans had greater exposure to traumatic events, social stressors, and psychological distress. This research is a necessary foundation for public health interventions and policy change to effectively reduce inequities in psychological distress., (© 2021. Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

This study aimed to assess the sensitivity of body mass index (BMI) to predict the risk of diabetes mellitus (DM) and whether waist circumference (WC), waist-to-hip (WHR) and waist-to-height (WHtR) ratios are better predictors of the risk of DM than BMI in South African men aged 20 years and older. Data from the first South African National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (SANHANES-1) were used. Overall, 1405 men who had valid HbA1c outcomes were included. The sensitivity, specificity, and optimal cut-off points for predicting DM were determined using the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis. A total of 34.6% percent of the study participants were overweight/obese, while 10.5%, 10.4%, 36.6% and 61.0% had HbA1c, WC, WHR and WHtR above the normal reference ranges, respectively. Based on age-adjusted logistic regression analysis, the highest likelihood of DM was observed for those participants who had increased WC and WHtR (odds ratios [OR] were 6.285 (95% CI: 4.136−9.550; p < 0.001) and 8.108 (95% CI: 3.721−17.667; p < 0.001)). The ROC curve analyses for WC, WHR, and WHtR displayed excellent ability to predict the risk of DM, with their areas under the curve (AUC) being 80.4%, 80.2% and 80.8%, respectively. The overall cut-off points to predict the risk of DM for WC, WHR, and WHtR were ≥88.95 cm, ≥0.92, and >0.54, respectively. The ROC analysis for BMI, on the other hand, showed acceptable ability to predict the risk of DM (AUC = 75.6%), with its cut-off point being ≥24.64 kg/m2. Even after stratifying the data by two age groups, WHtR remained a superior index to predict DM, especially in the younger age group. To conclude, no significant differences were observed between the AUC for BMI the AUCs for other indices. However, the AUCs for these indices showed significant excellent ability as opposed to the significant acceptable ability of BMI to predict DM in adult South African men.

Background: Adolescents are at increased risk of HIV infection compared to other age groups. There is an urgent need for strategic information that will inform programmes to reduce risk and vulnerability to HIV and reverse the pattern of increasing HIV infection as they transition to adulthood. This paper analysed trends and factors associated with HIV prevalence among adolescents in South Africa using the national HIV population-based household surveys conducted in 2008, 2012 and 2017., Methods: All three surveys used a multistage cross-sectional design. A trend analysis was conducted to assess the differences in HIV prevalence and covariates overtime using P-trend Chi-squared statistic. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression models were used to determine factors associated with HIV prevalence., Results: Overall there was a significant increase in HIV prevalence among adolescents aged 12-19 years from 3.0% (n = 2892) in 2008 to 3.2% (n = 4829) in 2012 and 4.1% (n = 3937) in 2017 (p = 0.031). The odds of being HIV positive among adolescents aged 12-19 years was significantly higher among females [AOR = 2.24; 95% CI (1.73-2.91); p < 0.001] than males, those residing in KwaZulu-Natal province [AOR = 2.01; 95% CI (1.-3.99); p = 0.027] than Northern Cape, and those who did not attend an educational institution and were unemployed [AOR = 2.66; 95% CI (1.91-3.67); p < 0.001] compared to those attending an educational institution. The odds were significantly lower among Whites [AOR = 0.29; 95% CI (0.09-0.93); p = 0.037], Coloureds [AOR = 0.21; 95% CI (0.11-0.37); p ≤ 0.001] and Indian/Asian [AOR = 0.08; 95% CI (0.02-0.34); p = 0.001] population groups than Black Africans., Conclusion: The observed increasing trend and gender disparities in HIV prevalence suggests an urgent need for age appropriate and gender specific HIV interventions tailored and targeted at identified drivers of HIV infection among adolescents., (© 2021. The Author(s).)

Background: Hypertension is the leading cardiovascular disease in Africa. It is increasing in prevalence due partly to the epidemiological transition that African countries, including South Africa, are undergoing. This epidemiological transition is characterised by a nutrition transition andurbanisation; resulting in behavioural, environmental and stress changes that are subject to racial and geographic divides. The South African National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (SANHANES) examined the association of traditional risk factors; and less traditional risk factors such as race, geographical location, social stressors and psychological distress with hypertension in a national population-based sample of South Africans., Methods: Data were analysed on individuals ≥15 years who underwent a physical examination in the SANHANES (n = 7443). Hypertension was defined by blood pressure ≥140/90 mmHg or self-reported hypertension medication usage. Stepwise regression examined the association of demographic, socioeconomic, life stressors, and health risk factors with systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, and hypertension. Secondly, the risk factor associations and geographical location effects were investigated separately for the African race group., Results: Increasing age (AOR = 1.069, p < 0.001); male gender (AOR = 1.413, p = 0.037); diabetes (AOR = 1.66, p = 0.002); family history of high blood pressure (AOR = 1.721, p < 0.001); and normal weight, overweight and obesity (relative to underweight: AOR = 1.782, p = 0.008; AOR = 2.232, p < 0.001; AOR = 3.874, p < 0.001 respectively) were associated with hypertension. Amongst African participants (n = 5315) age (AOR = 1.068, p < 0.001); male gender (AOR = 1.556, p = 0.001); diabetes (AOR = 1.717, p = 0.002); normal weight, overweight and obesity (relative to underweight: AOR = 1.958, p = 0.006; AOR = 2.118, p = 0.002; AOR = 3.931, p < 0.001); family history of high blood pressure (AOR = 1.485, p = 0.005); and household crowding (AOR = 0.745, p = 0.037) were associated with hypertension. There was a significantly lower prevalence of hypertension in rural informal compared to urban formal settings amongst African participants (AOR = 0.611, p = 0.005). Other social stressors and psychological distress were not significantly associated with hypertension., Conclusion: There was no significant association between social stressors or psychological distress and hypertension. However, the study provides evidence of high-risk groups for whom hypertension screening and management should be prioritised, including older ages, males, people with diabetes or with family history of hypertension, and Africans who live in urban formal localities., Competing Interests: None., (© 2021 The Authors.)

Objectives: Ageing populations have led to a growing prevalence of multimorbidity. Cardiometabolic multimorbidity (CM), the co-existence of two or more cardiometabolic disorders in the same person, is rapidly increasing . We examined the prevalence and risk factors associated with CM in a population-based sample of South African adults., Study Design: Data were analysed on individuals aged ≥15 years from the South African National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (SANHANES), a cross sectional population-based survey conducted in 2011-2012., Methods: CM was defined as having ≥2 of hypertension, diabetes, stroke and angina. Hypertension was defined as blood pressure ≥140/90 mmHg or self-reported antihypertensive medication use. Diabetes was defined by HbA1c ≥ 6.5% or self-reported medication use. Stroke and angina were assessed by self-report. Multivariable logistic regression was used to investigate the sociodemographic and modifiable risk factors associated with CM. The association of CM with the functional status of individuals was examined using logistic regression, where functional status was measured by the WHO DAS 2.0 12-item instrument., Results: Of the 3832 individuals analysed, the mean age was 40.8 years (S.D. 18.3), 64.5% were female and 18% were ≥60 years. The prevalence of CM was 10.5%. The most prevalent CM cluster was hypertension and diabetes (7.3%), followed by hypertension and angina (2.6%) and hypertension and stroke (1.9%). Of the individuals with diabetes, nearly three quarters had multimorbidity from co-occurring hypertension, angina and/or stroke and of those with hypertension, 30% had co-occurring diabetes, angina and/or stroke. Age (30-44 years Adjusted Odds Ratio (AOR) = 2.68, 95% CI: 1.15-6.26), 45-59 years AOR = 16.32 (7.38-36.06), 60-74 years AOR = 40.14 (17.86-90.19), and ≥75 years AOR = 49.54 (19.25-127.50) compared with 15-29 years); Indian ethnicity (AOR = 2.58 (1.1-6.04) compared with black African ethnicity), overweight (AOR = 2.73 (1.84-4.07)) and obesity (AOR = 4.20 (2.75-6.40)) compared with normal or underweight) were associated with increased odds of CM. When controlling for age, sex and ethnicity, having ≥2 conditions was associated with significantly higher WHO DAS percentage scores (β = 5.4, S.E. = 1.1, p < 0.001)., Conclusions: A tenth of South Africans have two or more cardiometabolic conditions. The findings call for immediate prioritisation of prevention, screening and management of cardiometabolic conditions and their risk factors to avert large scale health care costs and adverse health outcomes associated with multimorbidity., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (© 2021 The Authors.)

Background: Maternal mortality among adolescent mothers in South Africa is higher than many middle-income countries. This is largely attributable to conditions that can be prevented or managed by high quality antenatal care. The way in which pregnant adolescents are treated at antenatal clinics influences their timely utilization of antenatal services. This qualitative study reports on the experiences of pregnant adolescents with health care workers when accessing antenatal care., Methods: Pregnant girls aged 13-19 (n = 19) who attended public health care facilities that provide Basic Antenatal Care (BANC) services in Cape Town, South Africa were recruited. Four face to face in-depth interviews and four mini focus group discussions were undertaken, facilitated by a topic guide. Thematic analyses were used to analyse the data., Results: Experiences that reinforce antenatal attendance, such as respectful and supportive treatment, were outweighed by negative experiences, such as victimization; discrimination against being pregnant at a young age; experiencing disregard and exclusion; inadequate provision of information about pregnancy, health and childbirth; clinic attendance discouragement; and mental health turmoil., Conclusions: There is evidence of a discordant relationship between the health care workers and the pregnant adolescents. Adolescents feel mistreated and discriminated against by the health care workers, which in turn discourages their attendance at antenatal clinics. Maternal health care workers need to receive support and regular training on the provision of youth friendly antenatal care and be regularly evaluated, to promote the provision of fair and high quality antenatal services for adolescent girls., (© 2021. The Author(s).)

Background/objectives: Brazil, Russia, India China and South Africa have prioritized cooperation regarding health, including malnutrition. Anaemia in children, adolescents and women of reproductive age has been on the increase in these countries, placing a huge strain on healthcare systems. This study aimed to map the scientific perspective and research publications on anaemia in children and adolescents in the BRICS countries., Methods: Bibliometric analyses were employed to map scientific publications related to anaemia in children and adolescents in BRICS countries using VOSviewer software. Research documents from 1990 to 2020 were imported from PubMed. Descriptive statistics was used to analyse trends in research publications, authorship and keywords over the 30-year period., Findings: BRICS countries accounted for 15% of all publications on the subject within the last three decades. While India had the highest number of publications, China had the author with the highest number of research publications and co-authorship links. Of all article types, India had the highest number of letters, while China and South Africa published the highest number of RCT/clinical trial and review articles, respectively., Conclusion: The review of all scientific studies on anaemia in BRICS nations for the past 30 years revealed gaps in research collaborations on anaemia between authors in BRICS nations. However, collaborative research projects may contribute to building a shared base of evidence, innovations, data and methodologies for a more comprehensive understanding of the risks and vulnerabilities of child and adolescent anaemia. This will aid in the development and evaluation of interventions and policies to alleviate anaemia and nutrient deficiencies.

Introduction: Social or physical distancing has been an effective measure for reducing the spread of COVID-19 infections. Investigating the determinants of adherence to social distancing can inform public health strategies to improve the behaviour. However, there is a lack of data in various populations. This study investigates the degree to which South Africans complied with social distancing during the country's COVID-19 lockdown and identifies the determinants associated with being in close contact with large numbers of people. Materials and Methods: Data was collected from a South African national online survey on a data free platform, supplemented with telephone interviews. The survey was conducted from 8 to 29 April 2020. The primary outcome was the number of people that participants came into close contact with (within a 2-metre distance) the last time they were outside their home during the COVID-19 lockdown. Multivariate multinomial regression investigated the socio-demographic, psychosocial and household environmental determinants associated with being in contact with 1-10, 11-50 and more than 50 people. Results: Of the 17,563 adult participants, 20.3% reported having not left home, 50.6% were in close physical distance with 1-10 people, 21.1% with 11-50 people, and 8.0% with >50 people. Larger household size and incorrect knowledge about the importance of social distancing were associated with being in contact with >50 people. Male gender, younger age and being in the White and Coloured population groups were significantly associated with being in contact with 1-10 people but not with larger numbers of people. Employment, at least secondary school education, lack of self-efficacy in being able to protect oneself from infection, and moderate or high risk perception of becoming infected, were all associated with increased odds of close contact with 1-10, 11-50, and >50 people relative to remaining at home. Conclusion: The findings identify subgroups of individuals that are less likely to comply with social distancing regulations. Public health communication, interventions and policy can be tailored to address these determinants of social distancing., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Sewpaul, Mabaso, Dukhi, Naidoo, Vondo, Davids, Mokhele and Reddy.)

This study investigates the provincial variation in hypertension prevalence in South Africa in 2012 and 2016, adjusting for individual level demographic, behavioural and socio-economic variables, while allowing for spatial autocorrelation and adjusting simultaneously for the hierarchical data structure and risk factors. Data were analysed from participants aged ≥15 years from the South African National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (SANHANES) 2012 and the South African Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) 2016. Hypertension was defined as blood pressure ≥ 140/90 mmHg or self-reported health professional diagnosis or on antihypertensive medication. Bayesian geo-additive regression modelling investigated the association of various socio-economic factors on the prevalence of hypertension across South Africa's nine provinces while controlling for the latent effects of geographical location. Hypertension prevalence was 38.4% in the SANHANES in 2012 and 48.2% in the DHS in 2016. The risk of hypertension was significantly high in KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga in the 2016 DHS, despite being previously nonsignificant in the SANHANES 2012. In both survey years, hypertension was significantly higher among males, the coloured population group, urban participants and those with self-reported high blood cholesterol. The odds of hypertension increased non-linearly with age, body mass index (BMI), waist circumference. The findings can inform decision making regarding the allocation of public resources to the most affected areas of the population.

Background: Adequate information and knowledge about COVID-19 has been shown to induce the confidence and positive performance among healthcare workers (HCWs). Therefore, assessing the relationship between confidence in knowledge and associated factors among HCWs is vital in the fight against COVID-19. This paper investigates factors associated with HCWs' confidence in their overall knowledge about COVID-19 in South Africa in the early stages of the epidemic. Methods: Data utilized in this paper were from an online survey conducted among HCWs using a structured questionnaire on a data free online platform. The study population were all the medical fraternity in South Africa including medical and nurse practitioners as well as other healthcare professionals. Bivariate and multivariate logistic regression models were performed to examine the factors associated with confidence in HCWs' overall knowledge about COVID-19. Results: Overall, just below half (47.4%) of respondents indicated that they had confidence in their overall knowledge about COVID-19. Increased odds of having confidence in the knowledge about COVID-19 were significantly associated with being male [aOR = 1.31 95% CI (1.03-1.65), p < 0.05], having a doctorate degree [aOR = 2.01 (1.23-3.28), p < 0.05], being satisfied with the information about COVID-19 guidelines [aOR = 6.01 (4.89-7.39), p < 0.001], having received training in 6-8 areas [aOR = 2.54 (1.89-3.43), p < 0.001] and having received training in 9-11 areas [aOR = 5.33 (3.81-7.47), p < 0.001], and having already treated COVID-19 patients [aOR = 1.43 (1.08-1.90), p < 0.001]. Those who were highly concerned with the levels of training of HCWs [aOR = 0.47 (0.24-0.92), p < 0.05] had decreased odds of having confidence in their overall knowledge about COVID-19. Conclusion: This study sheds light on the importance of capacitating HCWs with knowledge and adequate relevant training as part of infection prevention control measures during pandemics. Future training and information sharing should be sensitive to knowledge gaps by age, gender, qualifications, professional categories, and experience., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Manyaapelo, Mokhele, Sifunda, Ndlovu, Dukhi, Sewpaul, Naidoo, Jooste, Tlou, Moshabela, Mabaso, Zuma and Reddy.)

Background: Psychological distress in vision impairments and blindness is a complex issue and a major public health concern. Sudden adjustments in routine lifestyle and career aspirations in such persons culminate in and/or aggravate their level of stress. Yet, psychological distress in persons with visual difficulties and vision loss in South Africa is poorly understood. We investigated the association between psychological distress and self-reported vision difficulties as well as clinician-assessed vision loss using data from the South African National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (SANHANES-1)., Methods: Data was analysed on participants aged ≥ 15 years who participated in the SANHANES-1 clinical examinations and interviews. Data on demographic, socio-economic, and health status variables were gathered using a structured questionnaire. Psychological distress was assessed using the Kessler psychological distress scale (K10). Vision assessment was conducted by clinicians adhering to standard protocols as well as by participants' subjective response to vision-related questions. Vision loss was defined as presenting visual acuity worse than Snellen 6/12 in the better eye. Bivariate and multiple logistic regressions were used to examine the association between vision parameters and psychological distress., Results: The analytic sample comprised 6859 participants with mean age of 38.4 years (60.8% females). The prevalence of psychological distress was 19.9%. After adjusting for demographics, socioeconomic, health risk and eye care variables, self-reported myopia (mild adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 1.9, 95% CI 1.3-2.7; moderate AOR = 2.4, 95% CI 1.6-3.7; severe AOR = 3.6, 95% CI 1.8-7.3) and self-reported hyperopia (mild AOR = 1.7, 95% CI 1.2-2.5; moderate AOR = 2.4, 95% CI 1.5-3.8; severe AOR = 3.5, 95% CI 1.8-6.8) were significantly associated with psychological distress. While psychological distress was higher in patients with clinician assessed vision loss than those with normal vision, the association was not statistically significant after adjusting for confounders (AOR: 1.0, 95% CI 0.7-1.4)., Conclusions: Persons who self-reported vision difficulty experienced a higher prevalence of psychological distress. Therefore, comprehensive psychological care is needed for patients with eye disease or vision difficulties as part of a governmental strategy to provide mental health care for all South Africans.

Background: The World Health Organization (WHO) declared the COVID-19 pandemic a public health emergency of international concern. South Africa, like many other countries, initiated a multifaceted national response to the pandemic. Self-isolation and quarantine are essential components of the public health response in the country. This paper examined perceptions and preparedness for self-isolation or quarantine during the initial phase of the pandemic in South Africa., Methods: The analysis used data obtained from an online quantitative survey conducted in all nine provinces using a data-free platform. Descriptive statistics and multivariable logistic regression models were used to analyse the data., Results: Of 55,823 respondents, 40.1% reported that they may end up in self-isolation or quarantine, 32.6% did not think that they would and 27.4% were unsure. Preparedness for self-isolation or quarantine was 59.0% for self, 53.8% for child and 59.9% for elderly. The odds of perceived possibility for self-isolation or quarantine were significantly higher among Coloureds, Whites, and Indians/Asians than Black Africans, and among those with moderate or high self-perceived risk of contracting COVID-19 than those with low risk perception. The odds were significantly lower among older age groups than those aged 18-29 years, and those unemployed than fully employed. The odds of preparedness for self-isolation or quarantine were significantly less likely among females than males. Preparedness for self, child and elderly isolation or quarantine was significantly more likely among other population groups than Black Africans and among older age groups than those aged 18-29 years. Preparedness for self, child and elderly isolation or quarantine was significantly less likely among those self-employed than fully employed and those residing in informal dwellings than formal dwellings. In addition, preparedness for self-isolation or quarantine was significantly less likely among those with moderate and high self-perceived risk of contracting COVID-19 than low risk perception., Conclusion: The findings highlight the challenge of implementing self-isolation or quarantine in a country with different and unique social contexts. There is a need for public awareness regarding the importance of self-isolation or quarantine as well as counter measures against contextual factors inhibiting this intervention, especially in impoverished communities.

Child and adolescent overweight is a growing public health problem globally. Europe and low and middle-income (LMIC) countries in Sub-Saharan Africa provide sufficiently suitable populations to learn from with respect to the potential for mobile health (mHealth) interventions in this area of research. The aim of this paper is to identify mHealth interventions on prevention and treatment of childhood and adolescent obesity in Sub-Saharan Africa and Sweden and report on their effects, in order to inform future research in this area. A search of peer-reviewed publications was performed using PubMed, ScienceDirect, EBSCOhost, and Scopus. The search included all articles published up to August 2019. The search strings consisted of MeSH terms related to mHealth, overweight or obesity, children, adolescents or youth and individual countries in Europe and Sub-Saharan Africa. Second, a combination of free-text words; mobile phone, physical activity, exercise, diet, weight, BMI, and healthy eating was also used. Seven studies were reported from Europe and no eligible studies from Sub-Saharan Africa. The results of this narrative review indicate a lack of research in the development and testing of mHealth interventions for childhood and adolescent obesity. There is a need for an evidence base of mHealth interventions that are both relevant and appropriate in order to stem the epidemic of overweight and obesity among children and adolescents in these countries. Uptake of such interventions is likely to be high as there is high penetrance of mobile phone technology amongst adolescents, even within poor communities in Africa., Competing Interests: ME and NK were employed by the company ARCH Actuarial Consulting. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Reddy, Dukhi, Sewpaul, Ellahebokus, Kambaran and Jobe.)

Background: Vision loss is a major public health concern that significantly affects developing countries, including South Africa. Although existing literature have reported on the prevalence, causes, and impact of vision loss on the quality of life of affected individuals (children and adults) in parts of South Africa, there is no evidence of the prevalence and associated factors of vision loss in the general population. Hence, this study aimed to determine the prevalence of vision loss and its associated factors in South Africa using a population-based survey., Methods: Secondary analyses were conducted using data from the South African National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (SANHANES-1), a population-based national health survey conducted from 2011 to 2012. Vision loss was defined as presenting visual acuity (PVA) worse than Snellen 6/12 in the better eye. Visual acuity was assessed by clinicians and participants' subjective response to vision-related questions. Univariate and multiple logistic regression models were used to examine the association of the independent variables with vision loss., Results: The analytic sample comprised 4346 individuals with a mean age of 39.1 years. Female sex accounted for 55.6% of the participants. The prevalence of vision loss among participants was 9.2% (95% CI: 7.7-10.9). Older age (45-54 years, OR = 2.99, p < 0.001; 55-64 years, OR = 5.78, p < 0.001 and ≥ 65 years, OR = 5.12, p < 0.001), female sex (OR = 1.50, p = 0.016), and previous diabetes diagnosis (OR = 2.28, p = 0.001) were significantly associated with increased odds of vision loss. Further, secondary school education (OR = 0.71, p = 0.031), white ethnicity (OR = 0.11, p = 0.007), residing in Mpumalanga province (OR = 0.12, p < 0.001) and having never had an eye examination (OR = 0.56, p = 0.003) were significantly associated with reduced odds of vision loss., Conclusion: Almost one in ten participants had vision loss. Adopting strategies targeted at reducing barriers to the utilization of eye care services will promote early detection and management of blinding conditions, and thereby, decrease the burden of vision loss in South Africa.

Background: While knowledge of onset of smoking tobacco, and associated risk factors can aid the formulation of evidence-based policy and interventions, such information is scarce in South Africa. We assessed age at onset of tobacco smoking in South Africa and identified its risk factors., Methods: We analysed data of 15,316 respondents aged 15-98 years from the 2012 South African National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Descriptive statistics and survival analysis techniques were used alongside weighted percentages., Results: Overall lifetime prevalence of smoking was 20.5%. Among the 3360 ever-smoked respondents, the overall median age at smoking onset was 18 years (Inter-quartile range (IQR) =5) with 2% starting before age 10 while 60% had smoked before age 20. Likelihood of tobacco smoking was higher among adolescents (<=20 years) and those aged 20-29 years than those aged > = 60 years, thrice higher among males, 29% higher among urban dwellers and thrice higher in Western Cape and Free State than in North West Province. The onset of tobacco smoking was earlier among males, wealthier and "coloured" people from Northern and Eastern Capes., Conclusion: The onset of tobacco smoking peaked at 15-22 years and varied by province, sex, location, race and other characteristics. The age restrictions on smoking in South Africa has changed over time, coupled with the recent open and electronic advertisement of tobacco, and social media could have influenced the earlier onset of tobacco smoking in South Africa. Stricter regulations on tobacco-related advertisement and sales should be implemented.

Objective: Diabetes is a chronic disease of uncontrolled blood sugar levels. People with diabetes are at an increased risk of developing visual impairment and other diabetes-related visual complications. The study aims to determine the eyecare utilization pattern and its associated determinants among diabetics in the South African National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (SANHANES-1)., Results: The mean age of participants was 56.2 years and 66.6% were females. The prevalence of eyecare utilization among participants was 49.0% and this differed significantly by age groups (p = 0.024) and the number of years since diabetes diagnosis (p < 0.001). After statistical adjustments, older age (55-64 years OR = 4.18, p = 0.003 and ≥ 65 years OR = 4.78, p = 0.002), having health insurance (OR = 6.32, p = 0.002), and having had diabetes for 6-10 years (OR = 4.23, p = 0.005) were significantly associated with eye care utilization. About half of people diagnosed with diabetes in South Africa have had an eye examination since diabetes diagnosis, which is disturbingly low given the impact of diabetes complications on eye health. Government policies must be directed at ensuring access to affordable health insurance and eye health education on diabetes.

Background: Eye examinations are recommended for all persons throughout life. However, there is disparity in the uptake of eye care services in different populations. Using data from a nationally representative population-based cross-sectional study (the South African National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, [SANHANES-1]), this paper investigates the utilization of eye care services and its associated factors in South Africa., Methods: Participants aged 15 years and older who participated in interviews and clinical examination were enrolled in the SANHANES from 2011 to 2012. Eye care utilization was assessed from participants' responses to whether they had their eyes examined by a medical professional and when they were last examined. Data were analysed using multiple logistic regression models employing a hierarchical approach to add predisposing (e.g. age, sex), enabling (e.g. health insurance) and need (e.g. hypertension) factors sequentially., Results: The study sampled 3320 participants, with 64.9% being females. 73.4% (95% CI [69.7-76.7]) of participants had never had an eye examination. After statistical adjustment, age groups (compared with 15-29 years: 30-44 years Odds Ratio [OR] = 1.76; 45-59 years OR = 2.13; 60-74 years OR = 2.74; ≥75 years OR = 3.22), ethnicity (compared with African descent: white OR = 4.71; mixed-race OR = 1.87; Indian OR = 7.67), high risk alcohol use (OR = 1.83), wealth index (compared with lowest quintile: third quintile OR = 1.75; fourth quintile OR = 2.23; fifth quintile OR = 2.49), health insurance (OR = 2.19), diabetes (OR = 1.75), high cholesterol (OR = 2.51), having assessed healthcare in the past 5 years (OR = 2.42), and self-reported vision problems (OR = 1.51) were significantly associated with eye care utilization., Conclusion: Almost three-quarters of South Africans sampled were not utilizing eye care services. It is imperative to strengthen current public health measures (including eye health promotion programs) to address the alarmingly low uptake of eye care services as well as the disparities in eye care utilization in South Africa.

Background: Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are a major public health concern with raised blood pressure and glucose emerging as leading causes of death and disability., Aim: This community-based demonstration project using community caregivers (CCGs) trained in screening for hypertension and diabetes aimed at improving early detection and linkage to care and management., Setting: The project was conducted in KwaZulu-Natal province., Methods: The CCGs were trained in NCD-related health education, promotion and screening for hypertension and diabetes using an accredited programme. The CCGs screened community members for hypertension and diabetes using three screening methods: door-to-door visits, community campaigns and workplaces., Results: Twenty-five CCGs received the accredited NCD training. A total of 10 832 community members were screened for hypertension and 6481 had their blood glucose measured. Of those screened, 29.7% and 4.4%, respectively, had raised blood pressure (≥ 140/90 mmHg) and blood glucose (≥ 11.0 mmol/L) who required referral to a primary healthcare facility. More than one in five (21.0%, n = 1448), of those with no previous hypertension diagnosis, were found to have raised blood pressure at screening, representing newly detected cases. Less than a third (28.5%) of patients referred to the facilities for raised blood pressure actually presented themselves for a facility assessment, of which 71.8% had their hypertension diagnosis confirmed and were advised to continue, adjust or initiate treatment. Similarly, 29.1% of patients referred to the facilities for raised blood glucose presented themselves at the facility, of which 71.4% received a confirmatory diabetes diagnosis., Conclusion: Community caregivers played an important role in early detection of raised blood pressure and raised blood glucose, and in referring patients to primary care.

This study investigated the associations between underweight, obesity and body image (BI) among 15+ year-old South Africans with diverse socio-demographic backgrounds. A cross-sectional survey and the analyses of data for 6411 15+ year-old participants in the first South African National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey was undertaken. Body image was compared to body mass index (BMI) and socio-demography. Data were analyzed using SPSS versions 25. Results are in percentages, means, 95% confidence intervals, p-values, and odds ratios. Overall, participants who were obese of which majority: were females, earned ZAR 9601+, completed grade 6, were non-Black men, were married and resided in urban formal areas, were more likely to underestimate their BMI and desire to be lighter. Participants who were underweight of which majority: were males, had no form of income or education, were black men, were not married, resided in less urban and farm areas, were younger than 25 years, were more likely to overestimate their BMI and desire to be heavier. While underweight and obesity were strong determinants of BI, BI was differentiated by socio-demography. These findings have a public health implication that requires special attention to curb the irrepressible underweight and obesity in South Africa.