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To develop bioactive and interactive wound-dressing materials based on natural products, poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) nanofibrous membranes containing plant-derived essential oils were fabricated and their potential applications for wound dressing were examined. Since essential oils, particularly palmarosa oil and phytoncide oil, possess natural antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties and are ecofriendly, they were chosen as bioactive agents to be incorporated into the nanofiber matrix. Antimicrobial efficacy, air/moisture vapor transport, and water uptake properties of the composite membranes were assessed to find suitable processing conditions for effective wound care. Palmarosa oil or phytoncide oil was incorporated into the core of PVA nanofibers via emulsion electrospinning. The PVA-based composite nanofibrous membranes were heat-treated to increase their stability in aqueous environments. Qualitative and quantitative antimicrobial assessments showed that the membranes containing palmarosa oil possessed superior antimicrobial effects against Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans over the membranes containing phytoncide oil. Air/moisture vapor transport and water uptake properties were assessed for the PVA-based composite membranes having two levels of web area density to find suitable conditions for creating an optimal wound-healing environment. The composite nanofibrous membranes, which had a web area density of 3 g/m2, provided reasonable levels of gas and moisture vapor permeability for effective wound care and possessed water uptake ability to allow exudate absorption. These results demonstrate that the electrospun core/sheath structured PVA nanofibrous membranes containing palmarosa oil have high potential as bioactive wound-dressing materials.

Titanium dioxide (TiO2), a well-known photocatalyst, was incorporated into poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) nanofibers via electrospinning to develop self-cleaning textile materials that can decompose organic contaminants and stains on the textile surface by light irradiation. TiO2/PVA nanocomposite fiber webs were prepared from PVA solutions that contained 5, 10, and 20 wt% TiO2 nanoparticles. The morphologies and chemical compositions of the composite fibers were characterized using scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and an energy dispersive X-ray analysis system. The TiO2/PVA nanocomposite fiber webs were thermally treated to increase their stability in an aqueous environment. To evaluate the self-cleaning performance, the fiber webs were saturated using a methylene blue dye solution and red wine. Different light sources, i.e., ultraviolet (UV) light, visible light, and fluorescent light, were used to examine their effects on the photocatalytic self-cleaning activities of the TiO2/PVA nanocomposite fiber webs. The color changes of the methylene blue and red wine stains on the fiber webs were assessed with the time of light exposure over a period of 24 h. The results depicted that the decomposition rates of the methylene blue and red wine stains by the fiber webs varied in the order of fluorescent light < visible light < UV light. Generally, the decomposition rate increased by increasing the time of light exposure and the TiO2 concentration. Our findings demonstrated the self-cleaning performance of the electrospun composite fibers containing TiO2 nanoparticles not only under UV light but also under visible and fluorescent light that are commonly used indoors.

Coptidis Rhizoma is a medicinal plant that is well known for its high antibacterial activity against various pathogens and its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and hemostatic effects. Here, nanofibrous membranes containing 10, 20, and 30 wt% of Coptidis Rhizoma extracts were fabricated by electrospinning using poly(vinyl alcohol) as the drug carrier and thermally treated to increase their aqueous stability. The antibacterial properties and release characteristics of Coptidis Rhizoma nanofibrous membranes were investigated. Coptidis Rhizoma-loaded nanocomposite fibers exhibited a high drug-loading efficiency ranging from 92% to 97%. The release profile from the nanofibrous membranes of Coptidis Rhizoma showed an initial fast release followed by a gradual release for 48 h. High antibacterial activity of the Coptidis Rhizoma-loaded nanofibrous membranes was exhibited against both Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis. These results demonstrate that poly(vinyl alcohol) nanofibrous membranes containing Coptidis Rhizoma extracts have considerable potential to be effective antimicrobial wound dressings based on natural substances.

Phytoncides are volatile organic compounds released from trees and plants and are well known for their natural antibacterial activity. In this study, emulsion electrospinning was used to encapsulate phytoncide in the core of nanofibers, with the aim of developing environmentally friendly, functional nanofibers with a sustained release of the encapsulated component. Core/sheath structured phytoncide/poly(vinyl alcohol) nanofibers were successfully prepared by emulsion electrospinning using an ordinary single-nozzle electrospinning setup. An oil-in-water emulsion of an aqueous solution of poly(vinyl alcohol) (as the aqueous phase) and phytoncide (as the oil phase) was used to prepare the core/sheath structured nanofibers. Nanocomposite fibers were electrospun under various spinning conditions and emulsion formulations to find the suitable processing conditions for fabricating nanofibers with core/sheath structures. The resulting nanofibers exhibited a well-aligned core/sheath structure with fiber diameters of 250-350 nm. The release profile of phytoncide from the core of nanofibers over a 21 day period showed that phytoncide was released in a sustained manner over 14 days. The core/sheath structured phytoncide/poly(vinyl alcohol) nanofibers exhibited 99.9 % bacterial reduction against both Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli, indicating that the encapsulated phytoncide in the fiber provided strong antimicrobial effects.

Lignin/poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) nanocomposite fibers with different lignin concentrations were developed via electrospinning to investigate further possible applications of lignin, an under-utilized renewable biomass material. The antimicrobial and ultraviolet (UV) absorption properties of lignin/PVA nanocomposite fibers were evaluated to determine whether the inherent functionalities of lignin remain in the final material. An environmentally benign crosslinking method was sought to increase the stability of lignin/PVA nanocomposite fibers in aqueous media. The crosslinking and insolubilization of the lignin/PVA nanocomposite fibers was achieved by combining several crosslinking techniques: water vapor treatment at 80℃ for 180 min, photo-irradiation for 30 min under visible light at a distance of 17 cm, and heat treatment at 200℃ for 60 min. Both lignin/PVA nanocomposite fiber webs—containing 50 and 85 wt% of lignin at a 3.0 g/m2 web area density, respectively—showed a 99.9% reduction rate against Staphylococcus aureus, but no reduction against Escherichia coli. The same systems exhibited ultraviolet protection factors (UPF) of >50, indicating excellent UV protection. These findings demonstrate the potential of lignin-based composite fibers, and may widen the range of applications for this biomass material.

This study aimed to fabricate core/sheath-structured composite nanofibers containing cinnamon oil by emulsion electrospinning and to investigate their acaricidal effect on house dust mites as well as their antibacterial and antifungal properties in relation to cinnamon oil concentration in the nanofibers. An oil-in-water emulsion, which comprised cinnamon oil and poly(vinyl alcohol) solution as oil and water phases, respectively, was used to prepare core/sheath-structured nanofibers. The morphology and the inner structure of the electrospun nanofibers were observed by scanning electron microscopy and confocal laser scanning microscopy. Core/sheath-structured nanofibers containing cinnamon oil were successfully prepared by emulsion electrospinning. The composite nanofibers prepared from an emulsion containing 20 wt% of cinnamon oil exhibited a strong acaricidal effect against house dust mites (Dermatophagoides farinae). The composite nanofibers fabricated from an emulsion containing 4.29 wt% of cinnamon oil showed excellent antimicrobial effects against Staphylococcus aureus and a series of fungi that can trigger respiratory- and skin-related diseases. The release profile of cinnamon oil from the core/sheath-structured nanofibers showed a continuous release of functional ingredients over 28 days. Our findings demonstrate that the use of such fibrous structures could be a promising approach for delivering naturally derived bioactive agents in a controlled way.

The objectives of this study were to evaluate the antimicrobial properties of ZnO/poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) nanofibrous membranes by in vitro trials and to investigate the effectiveness and sustainability in the reduction of bacteria by conducting wear trials in real-use situations. Layered fabric systems with a very thin layer of a ZnO/PVA nanofibrous membrane layered onto polypropylene nonwoven substrates were developed and applied to shoe insoles. Eight healthy males participated in seven different wear trials in which they played a basketball game for 2 hours wearing the prototype. In the in vitro testing, ZnO/PVA nanofibrous membranes obtained from an 11 wt% PVA solution containing 3 wt% ZnO nanoparticles with a web area density of 3.0 g/m2 exhibited a 99.9% reduction of Staphylococcus aureus. In the wear trials, the shoe insoles with ZnO/PVA nanofibrous membranes obtained from the same concentration solution at a web area density of 6.0 g/m2 showed 80.9%, 84.8%, and 82.8% reductions of Staphylococcus aureus after 8, 15, and 22 days of use, respectively. In addition, another set of shoe insoles was kept at a constant temperature and humidity level after the third wear trial and resulted in 66.0% and 86.6% reductions of Staphylococcus aureus after 15 and 22 days, respectively. Although the wear trial results showed lower antimicrobial properties compared to the in vitro trials, our findings indicate that the shoe insoles showed a consistent and reasonable level of antimicrobial activity over a period of time. This suggests that ZnO/PVA nanofibrous membranes with an antimicrobial function, which are ultrathin, flexible, and highly porous, have potential for use in sports/outdoor textiles.

This study investigated the incorporation of nanoscale germanium (Ge) and silicon dioxide (SiO2) particles into poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) nanofibers with the aim of developing nanostructures with far-infrared radiation effects and antimicrobial properties for biomedical applications. Composite fibers containing Ge and SiO2 were fabricated at various concentrations of Ge and/or SiO2 using electrospinning and layered on polypropylene nonwoven. The morphological properties of the nanocomposite fibers were characterized using a field-emission scanning electron microscope and a transmission electron microscope. The far-infrared emissivity and emissive power of the nanocomposite fibers were examined in the wavelength range of 5-20 μm at 37 °C. The antibacterial properties were quantitatively assessed by measuring the bacterial reductions of Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Escherichia coli. Multi-component composite fibers electrospun from 11 wt% PVA solutions containing 0.5 wt% Ge and 1 wt% SiO2 nanoparticles exhibited a far-infrared emissivity of 0.891 and an emissive power of 3.44·102 W m−2 with a web area density of 5.55 g m−2. The same system exhibited a 99.9 % bacterial reduction against both Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli, and showed a 34.8 % reduction of Klebsiella pneumoniae. These results demonstrate that PVA nanofibrous membranes containing Ge and SiO2 have potential in medical and healthcare applications such as wound healing dressings, skin care masks, and medical textile products.

This study examines the rustling sound characteristics of electrospun nanofiber web laminates according to layer structures. This study assesses mechanical properties and frictional sounds (such as SPL); in addition, Zwicker's psychoacoustic parameters (such as Loudness (Z), Sharpness (Z), Roughness (Z), and Fluctuation strength (Z)) were cal- culated using the Sound Quality Program (ver.3.2, BK however, weight (T) with Sharpness (Z) and Roughness (Z), and bending hysteresis (2HB) with Roughness (Z) indicated positive correlation coefficients, respectively.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to develop an adoption model to identify the critical factors that affect firms' intention to adopt mobile enabled supply chain systems (mSCM) in retail industry. This study focuses on inter‐organizational dimension since mSCM is an inter‐organizational system that provides both inter‐ and intra‐organizational linkages for firms across the supply chain.Design/methodology/approachA survey method was used to test the proposed model. Data from this study were obtained from South Korean firms.FindingsSupply chain awareness was shown to be a strong predictor of both inter‐organizational dependence and inter‐organizational trust which positively affects firms' long‐term relationship with their trading partners. Institutional pressures, long‐term relationship, and top management support also had a significant influence firms' mSCM adoption intention.Research limitations/implicationsFirst, only executives and managers in retail industry of South Korea were surveyed, thus, the results may not be generalized to retail industry in other countries. Second, the current study focuses on a firm's mSCM adoption intention rather than actual adoption.Practical implicationsThis study provides useful insights for practitioners to better manage institutional pressures and nurture long‐term relationship in order to promote co‐adoption of mSCM.Originality/valueThis study provides useful insights for supply chain members on how to overcome barriers to adopting an innovation and to increase the chance of successfully adopting mSCM in the retail supply chain.

This study investigates the fabrication of core-sheath nanocomposite fibers by locating germanium (Ge) and silicon dioxide (SiO2) nanoparticles selectively in the sheath layer by co-axial electrospinning. Co-axially spun fibers were prepared by electrospinning a pure PVA solution and Ge/SiO2/PVA solution as the core and sheath layer, respectively. Core-sheath nanocomposite fibers were electrospun under a variety of conditions that include various feed rates for the core and sheath solutions, voltages, and concentric needle diameters, in order to find an optimum spinning condition. Ge/SiO2 nanocomposite fibers were also prepared by uni- axial electrospinning to compare fiber morphology and nanoparticle distribution with core-sheath nanofibers. Using scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and energy dispersive X-ray analy- sis, it was demonstrated that the co-axial approach resulted in the presence of nanoparticles near the surface region of the fibers compared to the overall distribution obtained for uni-axial fibers. The co-axially elec- trospun Ge/SiO2/PVA nanofiber webs have possible uses in high efficiency functional textiles in which the nanoparticles located in the sheath region provide enhanced functionality.

Water vapor transport through textile structures is complicated and governed by various factors, including fabric openness, fabric thickness, pore size, and intrinsic fiber properties. The objective of this study is to understand parameters that are critical in the moisture vapor transport through woven textiles and develop a predictive model that describes water vapor transport of woven fabrics using those parameters. Fifteen woven fabrics with various fabric thickness, weight, fabric construction, and staple fiber type were selected, and the water vapor transmission rate, fabric thickness, fabric count, weight, yarn number, yarn twist, yarn diameter, and pore size distribution were measured. Based on the mechanisms of water vapor transmission through porous textile materials, the fabric cover factor, solid volume fraction, yarn twist factor, and yarn packing factor were computed and used as possible predictor variables in the modeling. Moisture regains of fiber were obtained from literature and used as a possible predictor variable. Statistical analyses were performed to examine the relationship between these parameters and water vapor transmission. Statistical analyses revealed that fabric thickness, fabric cover factor, mean flow pore diameter of fabric, and moisture regain of fiber were significant parameters affecting water vapor transmission through woven fabrics. The adjusted R2 value for the final model selected was 0.97. Influence of yarn twist factor and yarn packing factor were shown to be insignificant at the 5% significance level for these experimental conditions.

To develop waterproof breathable materials for diverse consumer applications, we used electrospinning to fabricate layered fabric systems with varying composite structures. Specifically, we developed layered fabric structures based on electrospun nanofiber webs with different levels of nanofiber web density, as well as different substrates and layer structures, and then examined the breathability and waterproofness of the material. The breathability and waterproofness of the layered fabric systems were compared with those of traditional waterproof breathable fabrics, including densely woven fabric, microporous membrane laminated fabric, and hydrophilic nonporous polyurethane coated fabric. Different breathability and barrier performance levels were achieved by varying the layer structure and substrates in the electrospun nanofiber web layered fabric systems. The uniformity of the nanofiber web and lamination process also affected the barrier and comfort performances. The comparison of waterproofness and breathability performances between the new materials and the traditional waterproof breathable materials revealed that the layered structures based on electrospun nanofiber webs provide a higher level of resistance to water penetration than densely woven fabrics and a higher degree of moisture vapor and air permeability than microporous membrane laminates and coated fabrics, with a proper selection of layer structure, substrate fabric, and lamination process.

To examine the feasibility of developing multifunctional textiles, layered fabric systems with electrospun polyurethane/zinc oxide nanocomposite fiber webs layered on cotton substrates were developed to impart UV-protection and antibacterial functions. The morphology of polyurethane/zinc oxide nanocomposite fibers was examined using a field-emission scanning electron microscope and a transmission electron microscope. UV transmission properties were assessed for layered fabric systems with various levels of electrospun web area density. Antimicrobial properties of zinc oxide nanocomposite fibers and layered fabric systems were evaluated qualitatively using the Parallel Streak method, and quantitatively by measuring the bacterial reductions of a Gram-positive bacterium (Staphylococcus aureus) and a Gram-negative bacterium (Klebsiella pneumoniae). A thin layer of electrospun zinc oxide nanocomposite fiber web significantly reduced the transmission of UV radiation and exhibited an ultraviolet protection factor of greater than 50, indicating excellent UV protection. Layered fabric systems with zinc oxide nanocomposite fiber webs containing 5 wt % zinc oxide exhibited over 98% reduction in both Staphylococcus aureus and Klebsiella pneumoniae. The results show that the successful imparting of multifunctionalities such as UV-protection and antibacterial functions to cotton fabrics is achievable through simultaneous electrospinning of the polymer material with zinc oxide nanoparticles. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2009

Smart clothing is a “smart system” capable of sensing and communicating with environmental and the wearer's conditions and stimuli. A comprehensive review is presented on the research and developments related to smart clothing including technology developments, human aspects in smart clothing, and the applications. Recent smart clothing technology can be summarized as a tendency toward textile-based technology for each component: interface, communication, data management, energy management, and integrated circuits. Human aspects in smart clothing, even though some areas were not fully covered, were dealt with in terms of usability, functionality, durability, safety, comfort, and fashion. General applications of smart clothing developed so far include bio-monitoring clothing, MP3 player-adopted clothing, and photonic clothing.

This research investigates applying zinc oxide nanoparticles to polypropylene nonwoven fabrics via electrospinning for the development of UV-protective materials. Layered fabric systems with electrospun zinc oxide nanocomposite fiber webs were developed at various concentrations of zinc oxide in a range of web area densities. The effects of zinc oxide concentration and web area density on the UV-protective properties of layered fabric systems were examined. Air and moisture vapor transport properties of layered fabric systems were assessed to examine the effect of electrospun web layers on thermal comfort properties of the material. A very thin layer of electrospun zinc oxide nanocomposite fibers significantly increased the UV blocking for both UV-A and UV-B ranges, and exhibited an ultraviolet protection factor (UPF) of greater than 40, indicating excellent UV protection. UV-protective properties of layered fabric systems increased with increasing zinc oxide concentrations of the nanocomposite fiber web. Increasing the electrospun web area density of the zinc oxide nanocomposite fiber web also enhanced UV-protective properties of layered fabric systems. Air and moisture vapor transport properties of layered fabric systems decreased as the electrospun web area density increased for the range of web area densities examined.

A convenience survey of 702 certified pesticide applicators was conducted in three states to assess the use of 16 types of engineering controls and 13 types of personal protective equipment (PPE). Results showed that 8 out of 16 engineering devices were adopted by more than 50% of the respondents. The type of crop, size of agricultural operation, and the type of pesticide application equipment were found to influence the adoption of engineering controls. Applicators working on large farms, users of boom and hydraulic sprayers, and growers of field crops were more likely to use engineering devices. Respondents reported a high level of PPE use, with chemical-resistant gloves showing the highest level of compliance. An increase in pesticide applicators wearing appropriate headgear was reported. The majority of respondents did not wear less PPE simply because they used engineering controls. Those who did modify their PPE choices when employing engineering controls used tractors with enclosed cabs and/or were vegetable growers.

Layered fabric systems with electrospun polyurethane fiber web layered on spunbonded nonwoven were developed to examine the feasibility of developing protective textile materials as barriers to liquid penetration using electrospinning. Barrier performance was evaluated for layered fabric systems, using pesticide mixtures that represent a range of surface tension and viscosity. Air permeability and water vapor transmission were assessed as indications of thermal comfort performance. Protection performance and air/moisture vapor transport properties were compared for layered fabric systems and existing materials for personal protective equipment (PPE). Layered fabric systems with electrospun nanofiber web showed barrier performance in the range between microporous materials and nonwovens used for protective clothing. Layered fabric structures with the web area density of 1.0 and 2.0 g/m2 exhibited air permeability higher than most PPE materials currently in use; moisture vapor transport was in a range comparable to nonwovens and typical woven work clothing fabrics. Comparisons of layered fabric systems and currently available PPE materials indicate that barrier/transport properties that may not be attainable with existing PPE materials could be achieved from layered fabric systems with electrospun nanofibrous web.

To examine the potential of electrospun nanofibrous webs as barriers to liquid penetration in protective clothing systems for agricultural workers, layered fabric systems with electrospun polyurethane fiber web layered on spunbonded nonwoven were developed. Barrier performance was evaluated for the layered fabric systems with different levels of electrospun web area density, using three pesticide mixtures that represent a range of surface tension and viscosity. Effects of electrospun web density on air permeability and water vapor transmission were assessed as indications of thermal comfort performance. Pore size distribution was measured to examine the effect of electrospun fiber web layers on pore size. Penetration testing showed that a very thin layer of electrospun polyurethane web significantly improved barrier performance for challenge liquids with a range of physicochemical properties. Air permeability decreased with increasing electrospun web area density, but was still higher than most of protective clothing materials currently available. No significant change was observed in moisture vapor transport of the system from electrospun nanofibrous web layers. Pore size distribution measurements indicated the feasibility of engineering pore size via the level of electrospun web area density, hence, controlling the level of protection and thermal comfort of layered fabric systems depending on their need.

To have a comprehensive understanding of protection and thermal comfort performance of a broad range of protective clothing materials, barrier and air/moisture vapor permeabilities of 36 materials commonly used for personal protective equipment were examined. Samples included nonwoven, woven, microporous membrane, and laminated fabrics. Protection performance was evaluated using three pesticide mixtures that represent a range of surface tension and viscosity. Air permeability and water vapor transmission were assessed as indications of thermal comfort performance in hot, humid environments. The overall observation of 36 materials on protection performance and air permeability showed that in general a negative relationship exists between these properties. Nonwovens covered a wide range in both air permeability and barrier performance, whereas wovens used for typical work clothing showed a narrower range. Thick, tightly woven fabrics exhibited fairly high protection performance across the pesticide...

Electrospun polypropylene fiber webs and laminates were developed using melt-electrospinning, to explore an alternative way of manufacturing protective clothing materials for agricultural workers. Electrospun polypropylene webs were fabricated in two levels of thickness. To examine the effect of lamination on the protection/thermal comfort properties, the webs were laminated on nonwoven fabric substrates. Barrier performance was evaluated for the electrospun webs and laminates, using two pesticide mixtures that represent a range of surface tension and viscosity. Effects of web thickness and lamination on air permeability and water vapor transmission were assessed as indications of thermal comfort performance. Penetration testing shows that electrospun polypropylene webs provide excellent barrier performance against the high surface tension challenge liquid, whereas the laminated fabrics of electrospun polypropylene webs exhibited performance of 90–100% for challenge liquids with varying surface tension. Air permeability of electrospun polypropylene webs decreased by ∼20% because of the lamination and web thickness, but was still higher than most of the materials currently in use for protective clothing. Water vapor transmission of electrospun polypropylene webs reduced by up to 12% from the lamination and web thickness as well, but was still in a range comparable to woven work clothing fabrics. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 102: 3430–3437, 2006

Land application of alum sludge has been considered to be an economical disposal method. However, its negative effects on the environment have been a cause for concern. In one example, an acid soil was treated with alum sludge from a water purification plant at 0 to 18% rate. Indian mustard was grown on the treated soil in a greenhouse for 5 weeks, and irrigated with pH 4 water during growth. Changes in the soil properties, leachate chemistry, plant growth, and plant uptake of elements by the sludge treatment were determined. The sludge treatment increased the buffer capacity to acidity, hydraulic conductivity, water-holding capacity, and phosphate adsorption of the soil and decreased the bulk density and mobility of small particles. The sludge treatment reduced the leaching of Al, Mg, K, Na, and Mn but increased leaching of Ca. The sludge treatment also increased the amount of biomass and enhanced root elongation. The plant absorbed a lower amount of cations and P, but a larger amount of Ca with...

The effects of the liquid/fabric surface tension difference, solid volume fraction of fabrics, fabric thickness, and viscosity of pesticide mixture on pesticide penetration of nonwoven fabrics are studied. A predictive statistical model to provide recommendations for selecting chemical protective clothing for pesticide applicators is developed to estimate pesticide penetration through and thermal comfort of nonwoven fabrics. The study involves fourteen commercial nonwovens and eleven pesticide mixtures of atrazine and pendimethalin at different concentrations. Using three mixtures that represent a range of viscosity and surface tension, percentages of pesticide penetration are measured, along with fabric thickness, weight, and air permeability. Statistical analyses help reveal the relationship between liquid/fabric parameters and pesticide penetration. Repellent finished fabrics exhibit extremely low penetration regardless of pesticide mixture or other fabric characteristics, whereas fabric type and pesticide mixture affect the barrier performance of untreated fabrics. For untreated nonwovens, statistical analyses show that pesticide penetration has the highest correlation with the surface tension difference between fabric and pesticide mixture, followed by solid volume fraction and thickness. Protection performance shows a significant negative correlation with air permeability for untreated nonwovens, indicating thermal comfort decreases with increased protection performance. The combination of fabric air permeability and thickness and solid volume fraction can be used when selecting appropriate clothing that offers needed chemical protection while maximizing thermal comfort.

In order to impart barrier properties against microorganisms and blood to 100% cotton fabrics and 55/45% woodpulp/polyester spunlaced nonwoven fabrics, samples are treated with chitosan and fluoropolymers using the pad-dry-cure and pad-cure meth ods, respectively. Antimicrobial activity of the samples is analyzed quantitatively by measuring the number of colonies of Staphylococcus aureus. Blood repellency is as sessed with an impact penetration test using synthetic blood. Laundering durability of the finishes is measured, and scanning electron microscopy is used to evaluate changes in the fabric surfaces. To investigate the effect of finishing on the hand and air per meability of fabrics, the mechanical properties of the samples are measured by the KES-FB system. Samples treated only with chitosan show a high reduction rate in the number of colonies. Dual finished specimens treated with 1.1 % chitosan concentration also maintain over 90% reductions in the number of colonies. The blood repellency of dual finished nonwoven fabrics is superior to that of dual finished cotton. Dual finished cotton fabrics exhibited durable antimicrobial activity with repeated laundering. As regards mechanical properties, bending rigidity and shear rigidity increase when cotton and nonwoven fabrics are treated only with chitosan, but these properties decrease after the fluoropolymer treatment. Air permeability of the specimens decreases slightly after the dual finish.