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Stigma often is cited as a barrier to the uptake and use of pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) to prevent HIV among Black sexual minority men (SMM). Socialized gender norms (i.e., restrictive emotionality) are associated with experiences and manifestations of stigma in men. However, the association between restrictive emotionality and the stigma surrounding PrEP use has received little attention in previous research. The present study examines the association between restrictive emotionality and holding stigmatizing beliefs about PrEP use with a theoretically informed serial mediation model testing internalized homophobia and LGBT community connectedness as mediators among a sample of 455 Black SMM in the Southeastern US. Results indicate that restrictive emotionality is associated with stigmatizing beliefs about PrEP use. Further, internalized homophobia and LGBT community connectedness were found to partially mediate the proposed relationship serially. Internalized homophobia, but not LGBT community connectedness, also independently mediated the association between restrictive emotionality and stigmatizing beliefs of PrEP use. This study provides important insights into how aspects of masculinity influence the manifestation of stigmatizing beliefs about PrEP use among Black SMM. The present findings have implications for reducing these beliefs, which are known to negatively impact uptake and use of the HIV prevention tool among Black SMM at elevated risk for HIV.

Antiretroviral therapy (ART) reduces HIV disease burden, increases life expectancy, and prevents HIV transmission. Previous research suggests that believing that it is harmful to take ART when using substances (i.e., interactive toxicity beliefs) leads to intentional ART nonadherence; however, these associations have not been investigated among younger adults living with HIV and have not been linked to clinical outcomes. We examined the associations among interactive toxicity beliefs, intentional nonadherence, and HIV clinical outcomes in young adults living with HIV. People living with HIV younger than the age of 36 years who tested positive for at least one substance use biomarker (N = 406) completed a 1-month pretrial run-in study that included computerized interviews, substance use biomarkers, HIV viral load, and unannounced pill counts for ART adherence. Analyses compared three HIV clinical outcome groups: (1) HIV viral unsuppressed, (2) HIV viral suppressed and ART nonadherent, and (3) HIV viral suppressed and ART adherent, on substance use, interactive toxicity beliefs, and substance use-related intentional ART nonadherence. Results showed that a majority of participants reported intentional nonadherence. Participants with unsuppressed HIV reported greater interactive toxicity beliefs and intentional nonadherence. We conclude that intentional nonadherence adds to the detrimental impacts of substance use on ART adherence and interactive toxicity beliefs that foster these behaviors may be amenable to interventions.

Background: Incomplete observation units may contain important information about the population being studied, analysis conducted with the complete portion of the dataset, done in most standard statistical software, may produce biased or low statistical power results. In this paper we investigate the behavior of imputation methods for a linkage to HIV care study dataset with more than 60% incomplete cases.Methods: Missing data imputation algorithms amelia, missForest, mice and hmisc were considered. Two sets of simulations were conducted: first with the subset of data containing only complete observations and second with the whole dataset. Imputation accuracy and general behavior for each imputation algorithm were accessed in the first set. Random forest models were fit to evaluate overall prediction accuracy and sensitivity in both sets of simulations. Results: The imputed values by missForest, a single imputation method, were more accurate for all incomplete variables and scenarios. Median overall prediction accuracy of HIV status, a three levels outcome, was slightly higher after imputations with missForest and amelia (approximately 52%, 61% and 65% for samples of 350, 700 and 1050 units respectively). In general, different missing percentages (20%, 40% and 60%) did not result in large changes in prediction or imputation accuracy and larger sample sizes performance improved for imputation and overall prediction accuracy but mixed results were observed with sensitivity. For the second set of simulations, missForest and amelia produced better overall prediction accuracy with larger samples (1200 versus 350 units). For new HIV positive HIV class, hmisc and mice presented better sensitivity, with median sensitivity 65% versus 50% and approximately 90% versus 20% for samples with 350 and 1200 units respectively, compared to incomplete samples. Conclusions: Imputation with mice and hmisc may be used for imputation when the main interest is to increase sensitivity in predicting new HIV positive. Furthermore, it is interesting to investigate which method gives more advantage for other performance measures of interest. Trial registration: NCT02545673

OBJECTIVES Syphilis infection disproportionately impacts Black sexual and gender minorities (SGM) in the United States. The extent of this impact among those living with HIV has been minimally examined. This study sought to examine lifetime syphilis prevalence and associated factors in a community sample of predominantly Black SGM living with HIV in the Southeastern US. DESIGN Participants (N = 174) enrolled in a stigma-mitigation trial for people living with HIV in Atlanta, Georgia, completed a sub-study involving testing for Treponema pallidum antibodies, indicative of lifetime syphilis infection. We performed chi-square and Fisher's exact tests to assess sociodemographic and healthcare differences by presence/absence of lifetime syphilis infection. RESULTS Most participants identified as non-Hispanic Black (n = 142/174; 81.6%) and cisgender male (n = 146/174; 83.9%). More than two thirds (n = 120/174) identified as gay/homosexual. We documented a 55.7% (n = 97/174) lifetime prevalence of syphilis infection and observed differences by sexual identity, with 77.3% (n = 75/97) of those screening positive reporting gay/homosexual identity relative to 58.4% (n = 45/77) of those screening negative (chi-square[1] = 7.8, p

BACKGROUND Adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) and sustained HIV suppression virtually eliminate HIV transmission, eg, having an undetectable viral load renders HIV untransmittable (U=U). Owing to the greatly reduced likelihood of HIV transmission when viral load is undetectable, we studied one behavioral ramification of adopting a U=U prevention strategy-not disclosing HIV status to sex partners. SETTING Cisgender men recruited through community outreach in the state of Georgia, USA. METHODS We examined HIV status disclosure to sex partners among 345 young (median age = 29 years) men receiving ART. Data were collected using computerized interviews, daily sexual behavior surveys over 28 days, unannounced pill counts for ART adherence, urine tests for drug use and urogenital health, and blood samples for HIV viral load. RESULTS One in 3 participants (34%) engaged in condomless anal/vaginal intercourse with an HIV-negative/unknown HIV status partner over 28 days. Average ART adherence was 76%, and one in 5 men had detectable HIV viral loads. Men who engaged in condomless sex with undisclosed partners demonstrated significantly less HIV disclosure to family and friends and had fewer enacted stigma experiences. Hierarchical regression models showed that endorsing U=U as a personal HIV prevention strategy predicted undisclosed condomless sex over and above substance use, HIV stigma experiences, disclosure to family and friends, ART adherence, and HIV viral load. CONCLUSIONS Interventions are needed to improve ART adherence and assist men living with HIV in their decisions to disclose HIV status to sex partners.

Purpose To test the efficacy of a theory-based behavioral intervention delivered via telephone versus clinic-based counseling to improve HIV outcomes and reduce alcohol consumption for people at-risk for treatment failure in a rural setting. Methods Patients receiving HIV care (N = 240) were randomized using a computer-generated scheme to one of three conditions: (a) telephone behavioral health counseling, (b) clinic-based behavioral health counseling, or (c) attention control nutrition education. Behavioral counseling was delivered by either a community nurse or a paraprofessional patient navigator, with differences examined. Participants were followed for 12 months to assess medication adherence using unannounced pill counts and alcohol use measured by electronic daily text message assessments, and 18 months for HIV viral load and retention in care extracted from medical records. Findings There was evidence for telephone and office-based counseling demonstrating greater medication adherence than the control condition but only in the short term. Clinic-based behavioral counseling significantly reduced alcohol use to a greater degree than telephone counseling and the control condition. There were no other differences between conditions. There were also no discernable differences between counseling delivered by the community nurse and the patient navigator. Conclusions Telephone and clinic-based counseling demonstrated improved medication adherence in the short term, while clinic-based counseling demonstrated reductions in alcohol use. The modest outcomes suggest that intensive intervention strategies are needed for patients that clinicians identify as at-risk for treatment discontinuation and treatment failure.

Intersectionality has emerged as theoretically and practically important to advancing HIV stigma research. However, few psychometric measures capture the intricacies of intersectional stigma. Grounded in the HIV stigma framework and contemporary theories of intersectionality, this paper describes a novel approach to conceptualizing the measurement of intersectional stigma. Taking the notion of an intersection literally, that is the point at which two or more lines meet and form a union, we offer a geometric conceptualization for developing a psychometric instrument to measure intersectional stigma. Ratings of stigmatized attributes, such as stigma ascribed to gender, race, sexual orientation, and HIV status are assessed on independent scales to calculate their intersection using the Pythagorean Theorem, c = $$\surd$$ (a2 + b2) and its extension to multiple stigmatized attributes d = $$\surd$$ (a2 + b2 + c2). Data from a sample of Black /African American women living with HIV were used to test the concept of a geometric approach to measuring intersectional enacted stigma and intersectional anticipated stigma. Findings from the test of concept were encouraging and warrant further scale development research.

The successful treatment of HIV infection relies on adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART). Alcohol use remains a threat to ART adherence, including the beliefs held by people who drink alcohol that it is harmful to take ART when consuming alcohol (i.e., alcohol-ART interactive toxicity beliefs, AA-ITB). We reviewed the current research that has investigated AA-ITB and their relationship to intentional ART nonadherence. The review of 17 published studies found that AA-ITB are prevalent among people receiving ART and that AA-ITB are directly associated with ART nonadherence and incomplete HIV suppression. Family, friends and healthcare providers are common sources and reinforcers of AA-ITB. Studies suggest that AA-ITB may best be explained by the Medication Necessity and Concerns Beliefs Model, treating AA-ITB as a specific circumstance of medication concerns. Interventions are needed to communicate the realities of potential medication interactions and dispel myths that it is harmful to mix alcohol with ART, while not inadvertently suggesting that it is safe to drink with all medications, which could undermine adherence to ART by increasing alcohol use.

Background The unprecedented rapid development of COVID-19 vaccines has faced SARS-CoV- (COVID-19) vaccine hesitancy, which is partially fueled by the misinformation and conspiracy theories propagated by anti-vaccine groups on social media. Research is needed to better understand the early COVID-19 anti-vaccine activities on social media. Methods This study chronicles the social media posts concerning COVID-19 and COVID-19 vaccines by leading anti-vaccine groups (Dr Tenpenny on Vaccines, the National Vaccine Information Center [NVIC] the Vaccination Information Network [VINE]) and Vaccine Machine in the early months of the COVID-19 pandemic (February–May 2020). Results Analysis of 2060 Facebook posts showed that anti-vaccine groups were discussing COVID-19 in the first week of February 2020 and were specifically discussing COVID-19 vaccines by mid-February 2020. COVID-19 posts by NVIC were more widely disseminated and showed greater influence than non-COVID-19 posts. Early COVID-19 posts concerned mistrust of vaccine safety and conspiracy theories. Conclusion Major anti-vaccine groups were sowing seeds of doubt on Facebook weeks before the US government launched its vaccine development program ‘Operation Warp Speed’. Early anti-vaccine misinformation campaigns outpaced public health messaging and hampered the rollout of COVID-19 vaccines.

Background SARS-CoV-2 infection (COVID-19) is potentially severe for individuals with compromised immune systems, including people living with HIV. Along with the direct health threats of COVID-19, there are disruptions to social relationships and health services resulting from mitigation efforts instituted by public health authorities. This study examined the relationship between trust in the government and trust in COVID-19 health information from the US CDC, state health departments, and social media on the experience of COVID-19 social and health services-related disruptions. Methods People living with HIV (N = 459) recruited through social media advertisements and chain referrals completed confidential surveys delivered through an online platform. Results Participants experienced high-levels of disruptions to social relationships and health services attributable to COVID-19 mitigation efforts. We also observed high-rates of inaccurate information and low-levels of trust in government and sources of COVID-19 information. Greater disruptions to social relationships were predicted by more concern about oneself and others contracting COVID-19, whereas disruptions to health services were predicted by greater concern for oneself contracting COVID-19, greater general medical mistrust, and less trust in information from the CDC. Conclusions Findings have implications for the necessity of rebuilding public trust in credible sources of health information and stepping up efforts to counter sources of inaccurate information.

Stigma impedes HIV treatment in multiple ways, including diminished engagement in care, refusing ART, and concealing ART to evade stigma. This study disentangled the degree to which intentionally not taking ART to evade stigma influences overall non-adherence to ART. Patients receiving ART at a community clinic in Cape Town, South Africa (N = 288) completed confidential surveys of demographic and health characteristics, stigma-avoidance non-adherence, and non-stigma-related predictors of non-adherence. Results found nearly half of participants (48%) had forgone taking their ART in social settings. Hierarchically structured regression models showed that alcohol use, medication concerns, and internalized HIV stigma significantly predicted ART non-adherence, accounting for 9.9% of the variance. Stigma-avoidance non-adherence explained an additional 2.6% of the variance in ART non-adherence. The current findings extend previous research to show that stigma-avoidance independently contributes to ART non-adherence, including over and above depression and alcohol use.

With the expansion of telehealth services, there is a need for evidence-based treatment adherence interventions that can be delivered remotely to people living with HIV. Evidence-based behavioral health counseling can be delivered via telephone, as well as in-office services. However, there is limited research on counseling delivery formats and their differential outcomes. The purpose of this study was to conduct a head-to-head comparison of behavioral self-regulation counseling delivered by telephone versus behavioral self-regulation counseling delivered by in-office sessions to improve HIV treatment outcomes. Patients (N = 251) deemed at risk for discontinuing care and treatment failure living in a rural area of the southeastern USA were referred by their care provider. The trial implemented a Wennberg Randomized Preferential Design to rigorously test: (a) patient preference and (b) comparative effects on patient retention in care and treatment adherence. There was a clear patient preference for telephone-delivered counseling (69%) over in-office-delivered counseling (31%) and participants who received telephone counseling completed a greater number of sessions. There were few differences between the two intervention delivery formats on clinical appointment attendance, antiretroviral adherence, and HIV viral load. Overall improvements in health outcomes were not observed across delivery formats. Telephone-delivered counseling did show somewhat greater benefit for improving depression symptoms, whereas in-office services demonstrated greater benefits for reducing alcohol use. These results encourage offering most patients the choice of telephone and in-office behavioral health counseling and suggest that more intensive interventions may be needed to improve clinical outcomes for people living with HIV who may be at risk for discontinuing care or experiencing HIV treatment failure.

This study tested the hypothesis that the co-occurrence of alcohol use and depressive symptoms predicts HIV suppression and antiretroviral therapy (ART) adherence among people living with HIV. Baseline cross-sectional results showed a significant interaction between depressive symptoms and alcohol use in predicting HIV suppression; individuals who drank more alcohol and had higher depressive symptoms demonstrated poorer HIV suppression relative to those who had fewer depressive symptoms. In a one-year longitudinal analysis of ART adherence, alcohol use and depressive symptoms measured in daily text-message assessments demonstrated that neither alcohol use nor depressive symptoms alone predicted ART adherence. However, the intersection of alcohol use on days when experiencing depressive symptoms did significantly predict ART non-adherence, for both moderate and heavy alcohol drinkers. Findings suggest that the co-occurrence of alcohol use and depressive symptoms is a robust predictor of poor HIV treatment outcomes.

A randomized clinical trial found that brief sexual risk reduction counseling increased condom use for men and women and reduced clinic revisits for women receiving sexually transmitted infection services in Cape Town, South Africa., Background Evidence-based interventions are needed to stem sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Clinic-delivered counseling remains an important avenue for effective STI prevention. Methods A 3-arm randomized clinical trial compared (a) STI health education control condition, (b) risk reduction counseling, and (c) enhanced partner notification counseling. Men and women (n = 1050) were recruited from an STI clinic in Cape Town, South Africa. After baseline assessments, participants were randomly allocated to receive 1 of the 3 single-session counseling interventions and were followed up for 9 months of behavioral assessments and 12 months of electronic medical records abstraction for STI clinic services. Results Sexual risk reduction counseling reported greater condom use than did the other 2 conditions during the 3 and 6 months follow-ups. In addition, women receiving risk reduction counseling were significantly less likely to have returned for STI clinic services but did not differ in the number of STI clinic visits over the year. Conclusions Brief single-session STI prevention counseling demonstrates significant targeted outcomes. The findings suggest that counseling approaches to both increase condom use and enhance partner notification may offer more robust and sustained outcomes and should be tested in future research.

COVID-19 has caused devastating health consequences and social inequities globally and in the United States. Unfortunately, the US has not developed a comprehensive National COVID-19 Strategy. In this editorial, we briefly review lessons about the development, structure, implementation and evaluation of the National HIV/AIDS Strategy (NHAS) for the US, and use these lessons to inform an initial proposal for a timely, dynamic, evidence-based, participatory, comprehensive and impactful National COVID-19 Strategy. Without such a strategy, the national response to the COVID-19 pandemic will remain uneven across jurisdictions and less than optimally impactful on disease-related mortality, short- and long-term morbidity, and health and social inequities.

Conspiracy theories have been proliferating during the COVID-19 pandemic. Evidence suggests that belief in conspiracy theories undermines engagement in pro-health behaviors and support for public health policies. Moreover, previous work suggests that inoculating messages from opinion leaders that expose conspiracy theories as false before people are exposed to them can help to prevent belief in new conspiracies. Goals of this study were to: (a) explore associations between COVID-19 conspiracy beliefs with SARS-CoV-2 vaccine intentions, cooperation with public health recommendations, and support for public health policies among U.S. adults and (b) investigate trusted sources of COVID-19 information to inform strategies to address conspiracy beliefs. A cross-sectional, online survey was conducted with 845 U.S. adults in April 2020. Data were analyzed using analyses of variance and multivariable regressions. One-third (33%) of participants believed one or more conspiracies about COVID-19. Participants who believed conspiracies reported that their intentions to vaccinate were 3.9 times lower and indicated less support for COVID-19 public health policies than participants who disbelieved conspiracies. There were no differences in cooperation with public health recommendations by conspiracy belief endorsement in the multivariable regression analysis. Although there were some key differences in trusted sources of COVID-19 information, doctor(s) were the most trusted source of information about COVID-19 overall with 90% of participants trusting doctor(s). Doctor(s) may play a role in addressing COVID-19 conspiracy theories before people are exposed to them to promote COVID-19 prevention efforts.

Background HIV status disclosure to sex partners potentially reduces the risk of sexually transmitting HIV. However, there is limited information on the associations between HIV status disclosure in types of sexual partnerships and ensuing sexual practices. Methods We examined HIV status disclosure to sex partners among 205 men and women living with HIV and receiving diagnostic and treatment services for a co-occurring sexually transmitted infection (STI) in Cape Town, South Africa. Participants completed partner-by-partner sexual behavior interviews and provided permission to extract recurrent STI clinic visits over the subsequent 12 months. Results Three groups were formed on the basis of HIV status disclosure to sex partners: (1) 22% reported only HIV same-status partners, (2) 26% had HIV-negative or unknown HIV status (HIV different status) sex partners to whom they had disclosed their HIV status, and (3) 52% had at least one HIV different-status partner to whom they had not disclosed. There were no associations between HIV status disclosure and demographic characteristics, sexual practices, or recurrent STI clinic visits. Undisclosed HIV status to at least one HIV different-status sex partner was associated with greater alcohol use and less likelihood of receiving antiretroviral therapy; participants who were least likely to disclose their HIV status to partners drank more alcohol and were less likely to be taking antiretroviral therapy. Conclusions High prevalence of partner nondisclosure and lack of significant correlates to HIV status disclosure indicate a need for further research with an eye toward identifying disclosure processes and mechanisms that may ultimately lead to effective interventions.

The life-saving effects of antiretroviral therapy (ART) in treating HIV infection are compromised by alcohol use. A growing body of research shows that both unintentional (e.g., memory lapses) and intentional (e.g., forgoing ART to avoid mixing with alcohol) contribute to ART non-adherence. Beliefs that it is harmful to mix alcohol with ART (alcohol-ART interactive toxicity beliefs) contribute to intentional non-adherence, but their role in overall adherence is not clear. This study conducted a clinic-based survey with 100 men and 193 women (mean age = 36) to examine the prevalence of alcohol-ART interactive toxicity beliefs and whether they contribute to treatment non-adherence in South Africa. One in three (36%, n = 106) participants reported no current alcohol use and 64% (n = 187) reported current alcohol use. The majority of participants, including current alcohol drinkers, endorsed beliefs that it is harmful to mix ART and alcohol, with 57% who currently drink reporting that they forgo taking ART when they are drinking. Participants reported being warned not to mix alcohol and ART from family, friends, and health care providers. In addition, 62% of participants who do not drink, as well as 36% of those who do drink, tell others not to mix alcohol and ART. Mediation modelling found that alcohol use directly predicts ART adherence, and that this relationship is partially mediated by alcohol-ART interactive toxicity beliefs. Health care providers can play a critical role in disputing interactive toxicity beliefs and encouraging patients to take ART even when they are drinking.

Unannounced telephone pill counts are an objective antiretroviral therapy adherence measurement tool, but this method has not been validated in young adults (YA) living with perinatal HIV infection. Perinatally infected YA, recruited from the Child and Adolescent Self-Awareness and Health Study, agreed to unannounced telephone pill counts to measure medication adherence over 4 months and phlebotomy to measure viral load (VL). Differences in pill count adherence scores among YA with a VL of ≤20 versus >20, and demographic differences were assessed. Participants (N = 62) were, on average, 24 years old; 57% were African American, and 40% were Latino. Participants with VL of ≤20 (60%) had significantly higher adherence scores (85% versus 62%; p = .004). Associations were not significant among older YA (range, 25-28 years) or Latinos. Unannounced telephone pill counts are a valid measure of antiretroviral therapy adherence in YA with perinatal HIV infection. Studies with larger samples are needed.

Recent advances in stigma theories have emphasized intersectionality, but there are currently few approaches to measuring intersectional HIV stigma. Here we present a novel approach to assessing intersectional HIV stigma. Black/African American sexual minority men living with HIV (N = 437) completed newly developed measures of enacted and anticipated stigma along with a battery of instruments to examine construct validity. For each endorsed stigma item, participants rated three personal attributes ascribed to the stigma experiences, specifically race, same-sex sexual behavior, and HIV status. Based on the notion that intersecting orthogonal dimensions such as attributions for experiencing stigma can be conceptualized geometrically, we used the Pythagorean Theorem to calculate intersectional stigma scores. Results showed that the enacted and anticipated stigma scales and the assessment of intersectional stigma attributes demonstrated acceptable response rates, internal consistency and a pattern of associations with correlates that suggests construct validity. In separate tests of construct validity, regression models predicting medication adherence indicated varied results among stigma measures, demonstrating clear advantages to separating the assessment of stigma experiences from the attributes to which stigma experiences are ascribed. Findings from this geometric approach to assessing intersectional HIV stigma were promising and warrant further investigation.

Drinking alcohol is a robust predictor of medication nonadherence. In addition to the impact of intoxication on adherence, individuals who believe that it is hazardous to mix medications with alcohol (ie, interactive toxicity beliefs) may forgo taking their medications when drinking. Previous research suggests that alcohol-related intentional nonadherence is a direct result of interactive toxicity beliefs. This study prospectively tested the association between alcohol interactive toxicity beliefs and intentional nonadherence to HIV treatment [ie, antiretroviral therapy (ART)].Four hundred eight people living with HIV completed comprehensive baseline assessments and 15-month attributions for ART nonadherence.One in 5 participants reported foregoing taking their ART when drinking out of concern for hazardous mixing of alcohol and ART. Poisson regression models predicting the number of months that participants were intentionally nonadherent to ART because they were drinking was predicted by alcohol-ART interactive toxicity beliefs.Beliefs that it is hazardous to drink alcohol when taking medications explains intentional nonadherence and should be directly addressed in adherence improvement interventions for people living with HIV who drink alcohol.

Purpose of the Review The SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) pandemic brought unprecedented social change with the most severe impacts on the most vulnerable populations, including people living with HIV (PLWH). This review examined findings from empirical studies of social and behavioral impacts of COVID-19 on PLWH in the first year of the pandemic. Recent Findings Impacts of COVID-19 on PLWH fit within an HIV syndemics framework, with overlapping COVID-19 and HIV comorbid conditions concerning mental health and structural inequality. Early impacts of COVID-19 on social isolation, emotional distress, stigma, and substance use varied across studies with few consistent patterns. Structural inequalities, particularly impacts on food security and housing stability, were observed more consistently and globally. Summary COVID-19 intersects with HIV infection along with multiple interlocking comorbidities that are best characterized and understood within a syndemics framework.

Undetected sexually transmitted infections (STIs) pose health threats to people living with HIV and when combined with uncontrolled HIV can amplify HIV transmission. The current study screened 174 self-identified men under age 36 living with HIV and receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART) for urethral and rectal incident chlamydia and gonorrhea infections. Participants were also screened for biomarkers indicating alcohol and other drug use, subclinical genital inflammation, and HIV viral load. ART adherence and sexual behaviors were also assessed prospectively over 1 month. Results detected an undiagnosed STI in 32 (18%) individuals. Participants with a previously undetected STI had significantly greater HIV viremia than those who did not have an STI after controlling for several confounding variables. Participants with an undetected STI also engaged in greater condomless anal intercourse with HIV negative and unknown status partners, including partners to whom they had not disclosed their HIV status. These findings show that undetected STI are associated with incomplete ART adherence and unsuppressed HIV, all of which are important for preventing HIV transmission.

Intersectionality has emerged as theoretically and practically important to advancing HIV stigma research. However, few psychometric measures capture the intricacies of intersectional stigma. Grounded in the HIV stigma framework and contemporary theories of intersectionality, this paper describes a novel approach to conceptualizing the measurement of intersectional stigma. Taking the notion of an intersection literally, that is the point at which two or more lines meet and form a union, we offer a geometric conceptualization for developing a psychometric instrument to measure intersectional stigma. Ratings of stigmatized attributes, such as stigma ascribed to gender, race, sexual orientation, and HIV status are assessed on independent scales to calculate their intersection using the Pythagorean Theorem, c = [Formula: see text] (a

Background:Long-acting reversible contraceptives (LARCs), which include the subdermal contraceptive implant and intrauterine contraception, offer women safe, highly effective, long-term pregnancy prevention, and have expanded contraceptive options. The implant greatly expands LARC options for South African women as it is available free of charge at public health facilities, but little is known about factors associated with its uptake. This study describes factors associated with the intention to use the implant, including knowledge and beliefs about the implant and perceived outcome expectancies of implant use among women in Cape Town, South Africa.Methods:Between 2015 and 2016, the authors conducted a quantitative, cross-sectional survey among adult women attending a public, primary health clinic in Cape Town, South Africa. Using a structured questionnaire, they measured knowledge, awareness, and attitudes, perceived outcome expectancy, and the intention to use the contraceptive implant in future among the women.Results:The authors surveyed 481 women (mean age 29.1 years). Most of the participants (n= 364, 75.6%) had heard about the implant, 45 (9.4%) were currently using it, and 97 (20.2%) intended to use it in the future. Knowledge about the safety of the implant, beliefs about its effectiveness, and the ease of insertion and removal, and support from intimate partners were positively associated with the current use and intentions to use the implant in the future.Conclusions:Limited knowledge of the implant, having completed secondary schooling, support from partner for women to use implant and the perceived outcome expectancies of using the implant were factors significantly associated with the intention to use the implant. Ensuring that the contraception information is available in all South African languages, regardless of education levels in women, and that comprehensive contraception education and counseling is provided during all family planning might help improve the uptake of contraceptives, including the use of the implant in the country.

Patient initiated decisions to forgo taking medications (i.e. intentional nonadherence) pose significant challenges to managing chronic health conditions. Identifying factors and their underlying mechanisms that impede medication adherence is essential to designing treatment improvement interventions. This study tested a conceptual model that posits the effects of perceived sensitivity to medicines on adherence can be explained by the experience of side-effects, leading to intentionally nonadherent behaviors. Patients receiving HIV care in the southern United States (N = 209) completed measures of perceived sensitivity to medicines, antiretroviral therapy (ART) side-effects, intentional nonadherence and overall adherence. Patients also provided consent to access their electronic medical records to collect subsequent reports of HIV viral load tests. Results indicated that more than one in four participants were intentionally nonadherent to ART. Mediation modeling showed that perceived sensitivity to medicines was associated with greater experience of ART side-effects and intentional nonadherence, which impacted overall ART adherence and HIV viral load. There were also significant indirect effects of perceived sensitivity to medicines on HIV viral load through side-effects and intentional nonadherence. Patients with increased perceived sensitivity to medicines are at risk for poor treatment outcomes and these negative outcomes are partly explained by experiencing greater side-effects and intentional nonadherence.

Background: Medication adherence is poor in young adults (YAs) with youth-onset type 2 diabetes (T2D). Little is known about intrapersonal factors that may relate to adherence. Aims: To assess associations of intrapersonal factors to medication adherence in Treatment Options for Adolescents and Youth (TODAY2) YAs. Methods: Validated measures (attitudes, beliefs, self-efficacy, distress, depression, anxiety) and insulin use surveys, were completed at a TODAY2 visit. Adherence to oral hypoglycemia agents (OHAs) was assessed with 3 monthly unannounced phone pill counts. Those taking ≥ 80% of pills/insulin classified “high-adherent;” < 80% of pills/insulin, “low-adherent.” If taking none, reasons were queried and adjudicated (no need vs. low-adherent). Logistic regressions assessed factors associated with OHA/insulin adherence controlling for gender, race/ethnicity, education, duration, healthcare coverage, and HbA1c. Results: Of 381 YAs in iCount (mean age 26 yrs, 68% female, 20% non-Hispanic white, 38% non-Hispanic Black, 36% Hispanic, 64.9% Conclusion: Poor medication adherence is common in YAs with youth-onset T2D. More needs to be learned about factors associated with adherence to develop tailored, effective interventions. Disclosure P. M. Trief: None. D. Uschner: None. M. Tung: None. K. Drews: None. S. Kalichman: None. B. Anderson: None. J. D. Bulger: None. R. S. Weinstock: Research Support; Self; Boehringer Ingelheim International GmbH, Diasome Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Eli Lilly and Company, Insulet Corporation, Kowa Research Institute, Inc., Medtronic, Tolerion, Inc. Funding National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (1RO1DK110456-01A1; U01DK61230)

People living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) often face significant stress, ranging from perceiving identity changes to encountering barriers to daily health behavior engagement. To manage these experiences, many people use positive reappraisal coping (including benefit finding and perceiving growth). Effective coping is highly important for PLWHA; stress reduction has salutary effects on multiple indicators of health. The present systematic review, conducted in PubMed, PsycINFO, and CINAHL, synthesises findings from 33 studies of PLWHA, addressing effects of positive reappraisal on health-related outcomes for adults living with HIV as a chronic illness. Studies were evaluated based on methodological considerations, measurement of key variables, and implications for specific aspects of health. Results suggest that positive reappraisal is often beneficial when dealing with the implications of a potentially traumatic HIV diagnosis on one's identity, although effects may be contextually bound. Implications of these findings are reviewed, emphasizing the importance of positive reappraisal for enhancing health promotion and self-management of HIV. Although the present review is limited by inclusion of multiple disparate outcomes and exclusion of non-English-language articles, these findings inform a comprehensive model of direct and indirect effects of positive reappraisal on emotional, functional, physiological, and behavioural aspects of health useful for guiding future research.

Since the beginning of the HIV epidemic stigma has served as a strong barrier to effectively delivering HIV prevention and treatment. Due in part to its complex nature, stigma is difficult to address and novel methods of understanding stigma are needed. Based on formative and empirical research with N = 236 primarily Black men living with HIV, a HIV microaggressions scale was developed and evaluated in order to assess this component of stigma. Factor analysis resulted in a 13-item scale (α = .83) with 3 subscales explaining 51% of the total variance. The microaggressions scale demonstrated convergent validity (with internalized, enacted, and anticipated stigmas) and discriminant validity (with social support). HIV microaggressions was associated with longer gaps since last care appointment and depressive symptoms, and subscales were associated with barriers to accessing health care, disclosure, and HIV care self-efficacy. The HIV microaggressions scale is a novel tool for assessing a critical subcomponent of stigma.

Antiretroviral therapies (ART) suppress HIV replication, thereby preventing HIV disease progression and potentially preventing HIV transmission. However, there remain significant health disparities among people living with HIV, particularly for women living in impoverished rural areas. A significant contributing factor to HIV-related disparities is stigma. And yet, the relative contributions of stigma, gender, socio-economics, and geography in relation to health outcomes are understudied. We examined the associations of internalized stigma and enacted stigma with community-level income inequality and HIV viral suppression -- the hallmark of successful ART -- among 124 men and 74 women receiving care from a publicly funded HIV clinic serving rural areas with high-HIV prevalence in the southeastern US. Participants provided informed consent, completed computerized interviews and provided access to their medical records. Gini Index was collected at the census tract-level to estimate community-level income inequality. Individual-level and multilevel models controlled for point-distance that patients lived from the clinic and quality of life, and included participant gender as a moderator. We found that for women, income inequality, internalized stigma, and enacted stigma were significantly associated with HIV suppression. For men there were no significant associations between viral suppression and model variables. The null findings for men are consistent with gender-based health disparities and suggest the need for gender-tailored prevention interventions to improve the health of people living with HIV in rural areas. Results confirm and help to explain previous research on the impact of HIV stigma and income inequality among people living with HIV in rural settings.

HIV is transmitted in social and sexual relationships, and HIV transmission risks, as well as protective actions, are evolving as HIV epidemics unfold. The current focus of HIV prevention is centered on antiretroviral medications used to reduce HIV infectiousness in persons already infected with HIV [treatment as prevention (TasP)]. The same medications used to treat infected persons can also be used by uninfected persons as pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) to reduce the infectivity of HIV. Both PrEP and TasP are effective when adherence is high and individuals do not have co-occurring sexually transmitted infections. HIV prevention is most effective and efficient when delivered within sexual networks with high HIV prevalence. Specific network characteristics are recognized as important facilitators of HIV transmission; these characteristics include the degree of similarity among network members (homophily), gender role norms, and belief systems. Since 2011, HIV risk has been redefined based on infectiousness and infectivity, ushering in a new era of HIV prevention with the potential to end HIV epidemics.

Adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) and sustained HIV suppression virtually eliminate HIV transmission, eg, having an undetectable viral load renders HIV untransmittable (U=U). Owing to the greatly reduced likelihood of HIV transmission when viral load is undetectable, we studied one behavioral ramification of adopting a U=U prevention strategy-not disclosing HIV status to sex partners.Cisgender men recruited through community outreach in the state of Georgia, USA.We examined HIV status disclosure to sex partners among 345 young (median age = 29 years) men receiving ART. Data were collected using computerized interviews, daily sexual behavior surveys over 28 days, unannounced pill counts for ART adherence, urine tests for drug use and urogenital health, and blood samples for HIV viral load.One in 3 participants (34%) engaged in condomless anal/vaginal intercourse with an HIV-negative/unknown HIV status partner over 28 days. Average ART adherence was 76%, and one in 5 men had detectable HIV viral loads. Men who engaged in condomless sex with undisclosed partners demonstrated significantly less HIV disclosure to family and friends and had fewer enacted stigma experiences. Hierarchical regression models showed that endorsing U=U as a personal HIV prevention strategy predicted undisclosed condomless sex over and above substance use, HIV stigma experiences, disclosure to family and friends, ART adherence, and HIV viral load.Interventions are needed to improve ART adherence and assist men living with HIV in their decisions to disclose HIV status to sex partners.

The COVID-19 pandemic has had profound health and social impacts. COVID-19 also affords opportunities to study the emergence of prejudice as a factor in taking protective actions. This study investigated the association of COVID-19 concerns, prejudicial beliefs, and personal actions that involve life disruptions among people not living with and people living with HIV. 338 Black/African American men not living with HIV who reported male sex partners and 148 Black/African American men living with HIV who reported male sex partners completed a confidential survey that measured COVID-19 concern, COVID-19 prejudice, and personal action and institutionally imposed COVID-19 disruptions. Participants reported having experienced multiple social and healthcare disruptions stemming from COVID-19, including reductions in social contacts, canceling medical appointments, and inability to access medications. Mediation analyses demonstrated that COVID-19 concerns and COVID-19 prejudice were associated with personal action disruptions, indicating that these social processes are important for understanding how individuals modified their lives in response to COVID-19. It is imperative that public health efforts combat COVID-19 prejudice as these beliefs undermine investments in developing healthcare infrastructure to address COVID-19 prevention.