Search

We are facing interwoven global threats to public health and ecosystem function that reveal the intrinsic connections between human and wildlife health. These challenges are especially pressing in cities, where social-ecological interactions are pronounced. The One Health concept provides an organizing framework that promotes the health and well-being of urban communities and ecosystems. However, for One Health to be successful, it must incorporate societal inequities in environmental disamenities, exposures, and policy. Such inequities affect all One Health interfaces, including the distribution of ecosystem services and disservices, the nature and frequency ofhuman–wildlife interactions, and legacies of land use. Here, we review the current literature on One Health perspectives, pinpoint areas in which to incorporate an environmental justice lens, and close with recommendations for future work. Intensifying social, political, and environmental unrest underscores a dire need for One Health solutions informed by environmental justice principles to help build healthier, more resilient cities.

Reduced human activity to mitigate the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic was accompanied by reports of unusual wildlife sightings in highly developed areas. Such experiences with urban nature may have helped residents cope with the stress of the pandemic and increased public interest in urban wildlife; however, this may depend on the species residents encountered. In this study, we surveyed Chicago, Illinois, USA residents during a stay-at-home order to understand if residents in more affluent or greener neighborhoods saw more wildlife species. We also evaluated whether encounters with pest and non-pest species were associated with residents' values about wildlife. Of 593 responses included in our analyses, respondents in higher-income and greener neighborhoods were more likely to perceive increased wildlife sightings and respondents in higher-income areas reported observing a higher number common birds and mammals. Support for seeing wildlife in residential areas was associated with seeing passerine birds and not seeing rats during the stay-at-home order. Our results suggest that perceived increases in wildlife sightings were common during a stay-at-home order, especially for affluent residents, and that residents' perceptions depended on the species encountered. Understanding how changes in human behavior modifies human-wildlife interactions can help mitigate human-wildlife conflict and foster positive engagement with local wildlife.The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11252-022-01284-x.

Mesopredators including coyotes (Canis latrans) and red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) often co-occur in urban environments, but how niche partitioning facilitates their coexistence remains unclear. Highly urbanized areas can be spatial refuges for smaller mesopredators (i.e., spatial human shield effect), however these species also may coexist through temporal niche partitioning. We used camera traps (n = 110 sites) across an urbanization gradient in Chicago to examine coyote-fox interactions from 2011 to 2018. We analyzed spatial partitioning through multi-season occupancy models and structural equation modeling (SEM), and quantified temporal overlap between canids and with humans. Coyotes most often occurred in natural areas, and urbanization reduced their colonization rates and increased their extinction rates. Initial occupancy for red foxes was negatively impacted by urbanization, but their extinction rates depended on a surprising interaction between coyotes and humans. When coyotes were rare, fox extinction was related positively to human activity; but when coyotes were more common, fox extinction was related negatively to human activity. This outcome may reflect a human shield effect at a within-site scale. The SEM further supported the negative impact of urbanization on both canids, and lack of an effect of coyotes on the distribution of foxes. Diel activity of coyotes and red foxes indicated temporal niche partitioning intensified at more urbanized sites. Our results suggest the spatial human shield effect is not operating across sites in Chicago. Instead, coyotes and red foxes may share green spaces, especially in highly urbanized areas, where species coexistence is promoted by temporal niche partitioning.

Urban biodiversity provides critical ecosystem services and is a key component to environmentally and socially sustainable cities. However, biodiversity varies greatly within and among cities, leading to human communities with changing and unequal experiences with nature. The "luxury effect," a hypothesis that predicts a positive correlation between wealth, typically measured by per capita income, and species richness may be one indication of these inequities. While the luxury effect is well studied for some taxa, it has rarely been investigated for mammals, which provide unique ecosystem services (e.g., biological pest control) and exhibit significant potential for negative human-wildlife interactions (e.g., nuisances or conflicts). We analyzed a large dataset of mammal detections across 20 North American cities to test whether the luxury effect is consistent for medium- to large-sized terrestrial mammals across diverse urban contexts. Overall, support for the luxury effect, as indicated by per capita income, was inconsistent; we found evidence of a luxury effect in approximately half of our study cities. Species richness was, however, highly and negatively correlated with urban intensity in most cities. We thus suggest that economic factors play an important role in shaping urban mammal communities for some cities and species, but that the strongest driver of urban mammal diversity is urban intensity. To better understand the complexity of urban ecosystems, ecologists and social scientists must consider the social and political factors that drive inequitable human experiences with nature in cities.

To mitigate human-wildlife conflict it is imperative to know where and when conflict occurs. However, standard methods used to predict the occurrence of human-wildlife conflict often fail to recognize how a species distribution likely limits where and when conflict may happen. As such, methods that predict human-wildlife conflict could be improved if they could identify where conflict will occur relative to species' underlying distribution. To this end, we used an integrated species distribution model that combined presence-only wildlife complaints with data from a systematic camera trapping survey throughout Chicago, Illinois. This model draws upon both data sources to estimate a latent distribution of species; in addition, the model can estimate where conflict is most likely to occur within that distribution. We modeled the occupancy and conflict potential of coyote (Canis latrans), Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana), and raccoon (Procyon lotor) as a function of urban intensity, per capita income, and home vacancy rates throughout Chicago. Overall, the distribution of each species constrained the spatiotemporal patterns of conflict throughout the city of Chicago. Within each species distribution, we found that human-wildlife conflict was most likely to occur where humans and wildlife habitat overlap (e.g., featuring higher-than-average canopy cover and housing density). Furthermore, human-wildlife conflict was most likely to occur in high-income neighborhoods for Virginia opossum and raccoon, despite the fact that those two species have higher occupancy in low-income neighborhoods. As such, knowing where species are distributed can inform guidelines on where wildlife management should be focused, especially if it overlaps with human habitats. Finally, because this integrated model can incorporate data that have already been collected by wildlife managers or city officials, this approach could be used to develop stronger collaborations with wildlife management agencies and conduct applied research that will inform landscape-scale wildlife management.

Time is a fundamental component of ecological processes. How animal behavior changes over time has been explored through well-known ecological theories like niche partitioning and predator–prey dynamics. Yet, changes in animal behavior within the shorter 24-hr light–dark cycle have largely gone unstudied. Understanding if an animal can adjust their temporal activity to mitigate or adapt to environmental change has become a recent topic of discussion and is important for effective wildlife management and conservation. While spatial habitat is a fundamental consideration in wildlife management and conservation, temporal habitat is often ignored. We formulated a temporal resource selection model to quantify the diel behavior of 8 mammal species across 10 US cities. We found high variability in diel activity patterns within and among species and species-specific correlations between diel activity and human population density, impervious land cover, available greenspace, vegetation cover, and mean daily temperature. We also found that some species may modulate temporal behaviors to manage both natural and anthropogenic risks. Our results highlight the complexity with which temporal activity patterns interact with local environmental characteristics, and suggest that urban mammals may use time along the 24-hr cycle to reduce risk, adapt, and therefore persist, and in some cases thrive, in human-dominated ecosystems.

In 1898, Herbert and Alice Walter started a 5-year survey of birds in Lincoln Park-the largest park in Chicago, Illinois-and summarized their data in an urban birding field guide

Time is a fundamental component of ecological processes. How animal behavior changes over time has been explored through well-known ecological theories like niche partitioning and predator-prey dynamics. Yet, changes in animal behavior within the shorter 24-hour light-dark cycle have largely gone unstudied. Understanding if an animal can adjust their temporal activity to mitigate or adapt to environmental change has become a recent topic of discussion and is important for effective wildlife management and conservation. While spatial habitat is a fundamental consideration in wildlife management and conservation, temporal habitat is often ignored. We formulated a temporal resource selection model to quantify the diel behavior of eight mammal species across ten U.S. cities. We found high variability in diel activity patterns within and among species and species-specific correlations between diel activity and human population density, impervious land cover, available greenspace, vegetation cover, and mean daily temperature. We also found that some species may modulate temporal behaviors to manage both natural and anthropogenic risks. Our results highlight the complexity with which temporal activity patterns interact with local environmental characteristics, and suggest that urban mammals may use time along the 24-hour cycle to reduce risk, adapt, and therefore persist in human-dominated ecosystems.

Urbanization is considered the fastest growing form of global land-use change and can dramatically modify habitat structure and ecosystem functioning. While ecological processes continue to operate within cities, urban ecosystems are profoundly different from their more natural counterparts. Thus, ecological predictions derived from more natural ecosystems are rarely generalizable to urban environments. In this study, we used data from a large-scale and long-term camera trap project in Chicago IL, USA, to determine whether urbanization alters predator-avoidance behaviour of urban prey species. We studied three behavioural mechanisms often induced by the fear of predation (spatial distribution, daily activity patterns and vigilance) of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and eastern cottontail (Sylvilagus floridanus) when coyote (Canis latrans)-an urban apex predator-was present. We found no evidence of spatial segregation between coyote and either prey species. Furthermore, neither white-tailed deer nor eastern cottontail changed their daily activity or increased vigilance in urban areas when coyotes were present. Eastern cottontail, however, had their uppermost level of vigilance in highly urban sites when coyotes were absent. Our study demonstrates that predator-prey dynamics might be modified in urban ecosystems-moving from what is traditionally thought of as a two-player system (predator and prey) to a three-player system (predator, prey and people).

Current methods to model species habitat use through space and diel time are limited. Development of such models is critical when considering rapidly changing habitats where species are forced to adapt to anthropogenic change, often by shifting their diel activity across space. We use an occupancy modeling framework to develop a new model, the multi-state diel occupancy model (MSDOM), which can evaluate species diel activity against continuous response variables which may impact diel activity within and across seasons or years. We used two case studies, fosa in Madagascar and coyote in Chicago, USA, to conceptualize the application of this model and to quantify the impacts of human activity on species spatial use in diel time. We found support that both species varied their habitat use by diel states—in and across years, and by human disturbance. Our results exemplify the importance of understanding animal diel activity patterns and how human disturbance can lead to temporal habitat loss. The MSDOM will allow more focused attention in ecology and evolution studies on the importance of the short temporal scale of diel time in animal-habitat relationships and lead to improved habitat conservation and management.

Cities are intended to be places for people to live, but some animals survive and even thrive in cities. Animals that are smaller, have more general diets, and are more intelligent or adaptable are especially good at city life. Many of these wildlife species have learned special behaviors to help them survive in urban areas. Scientists use many tools to study these animals because understanding wildlife in cities can help people learn to live with them. There are many things you can do to help scientists learn more about the animals you see every day and make your neighborhood a better place for wild animals.

Understanding how biodiversity responds to urbanization is challenging, due in part to the single-city focus of most urban ecological research. Here, we delineate continent-scale patterns in urban species assemblages by leveraging data from a multi-city camera trap survey and quantify how differences in greenspace availability and average housing density among 10 North American cities relate to the distribution of eight widespread North American mammals. To do so, we deployed camera traps at 569 sites across these ten cities between 18 June and 14 August. Most data came from 2017, though some cities contributed 2016 or 2018 data if it was available. We found that the magnitude and direction of most species' responses to urbanization within a city were associated with landscape-scale differences among cities. For example, eastern gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis), fox squirrel (Sciurus niger), and red fox (Vulpes vulpes) responses to urbanization changed from negative to positive once the proportion of green space within a city was >~20%. Likewise, raccoon (Procyon lotor) and Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana) responses to urbanization changed from positive to negative once the average housing density of a city exceeded about 700 housing units/km2 . We also found that local species richness within cities consistently declined with urbanization in only the more densely developed cities (>~700 housing units/km2 ). Given our results, it may therefore be possible to design cities to better support biodiversity and reduce the negative influence of urbanization on wildlife by, for example, increasing the amount of green space within a city. Additionally, it may be most important for densely populated cities to find innovative solutions to bolster wildlife resilience because they were the most likely to observe diversity losses of common urban species.

Background Encounters with rats in urban areas increase risk of human exposure to rat-associated zoonotic pathogens and act as a stressor associated with psychological distress. The frequency and nature of human-rat encounters may be altered by social distancing policies to mitigate the COVID-19 pandemic. For example, restaurant closures may reduce food availability for rats and promote rat activity in nearby residential areas, thus increasing public health risks during a period of public health crisis. In this study, we aimed to identify factors associated with increased perceived exposure to rats during a stay-at-home order, describe residents’ encounters with rats relevant to their health and well-being, and identify factors associated with increased use of rodent control. Methods Urban residents in Chicago, a large city with growing concerns about rats and health disparities, completed an online questionnaire including fixed response and open-ended questions during the spring 2020 stay-at-home order. Analyses included ordinal multivariate regression, spatial analysis, and thematic analysis for open-ended responses. Results Overall, 21% of respondents (n = 835) reported an increase in rat sightings around their homes during the stay-at-home order and increased rat sightings was positively associated with proximity to restaurants, low-rise apartment buildings, and rat feces in the home (p ≤ 0.01). Many respondents described feeling unsafe using their patio or yard, and afraid of rats entering their home or spreading disease. Greater engagement with rodent control was associated with property ownership, information about rat control, and areas with lower incomes (p ≤ 0.01). Conclusions More frequent rat encounters may be an unanticipated public health concern during periods of social distancing, especially in restaurant-dense areas or in low-rise apartment buildings. Rat presence may also limit residents’ ability to enjoy nearby outdoor spaces, which otherwise might buffer stress experienced during a stay-at-home order. Proactive rat control may be needed to mitigate rat-associated health risks during future stay-at-home orders.

Camera traps are an increasingly popular tool to monitor wildlife distributions. However, traditional analytical approaches to camera trap data are difficult to apply to visible wildlife characteristics in single images, such as infection status. Several parasites produce visible signs of infection that could be sampled via camera traps. Sarcoptic mange Sarcoptes scabiei is an ideal disease to study using cameras because it results in visible hair loss and affects a broad host range. Here, we developed a multi-state occupancy model to estimate the occurrence of mange in coyotes Canis latrans across an urban gradient. This model incorporates a secondary detection function for apparent by-image infection status to provide detection-corrected estimates of mange occurrence. We analysed a multi-year camera trap dataset in Chicago, Illinois, United States, to test whether the apparent occurrence of sarcoptic mange in coyotes Canis latrans increases with urbanization or varies through time. We documented visible signs consistent with current or recovering mange infection and variables we hypothesized would improve mange detection: The proportion of the coyote in frame, image blur and whether the image was in colour. We were more likely to detect coyotes with mange in images that were less blurry, in colour, and if a greater proportion of the coyote was visible. Mangy coyote occupancy was significantly higher in urban developed areas with low housing density and higher canopy cover whereas coyote occupancy, mangy or otherwise, decreased with urbanization. By incorporating image quality into our by-image detection function, we provide a robust method to non-invasively survey visible aspects of wildlife health with camera traps. Apparently mangy coyotes were associated with low-density forested neighbourhoods, which may offer vegetated areas while containing sources of anthropogenic resources. This association may contribute to human-wildlife conflict and reinforces posited relationships between infection risk and habitat use. More generally, our model could provide detection-corrected occupancy estimates of visible characteristics that vary by image such as body condition or injuries.

Rat-associated zoonoses transmitted through faeces or urine are of particular concern for public health because environmental exposure in homes and businesses may be frequent and undetected. To identify times and locations with greater public health risks from rats, we investigated whether rat characteristics, environmental features, socioeconomic factors, or season could predict rat infection risk across diverse urban neighbourhoods. In partnership with a pest management company, we sampled rats in 13 community areas along an income gradient in Chicago, a large city where concern about rats has increased in recent years. We collected kidneys for Leptospira spp. testing and colon contents for aerobic bacteria such as Salmonella spp. and Escherichia coli. Of 202 sampled rats, 5% carried Leptospira spp. and 22% carried E. coli. Rats were significantly more likely to carry Leptospira spp. on blocks with more standing water complaints in higher-income neighbourhoods (OR = 6.74, 95% CI: 1.54-29.39). Rats were significantly more likely to carry E. coli on blocks with more food vendors (OR = 9.94, 2.27-43.50) particularly in low-income neighbourhoods (OR = 0.26, 0.09-0.82) and in the spring (OR = 15.96, 2.90-88.62). We detected a high diversity of E. coli serovars but none contained major virulence factors. These associations between environmental features related to sanitation and infection risk in rats support transmission through water for Leptospira spp. and faecal-oral transmission for E. coli. We also found opposing relationships between zoonotic infection risk and income for these two pathogens. Thus, our results highlight the importance of sanitation for predicting zoonotic disease risks and including diverse urban areas in pathogen surveillance to mitigate public health risks from rats.

Urbanization generates shifts in wildlife communities, with some species increasing their distribution and abundance, while others decline. We used a dataset spanning 15 years to assess trends in distribution and habitat dynamics of the black-tailed prairie dog, a highly interactive species, in urban habitat remnants in Denver, CO, USA. Both available habitat and number of prairie dog colonies declined steeply over the course of the study. However, we did observe new colonization events that correlated with habitat connectivity. Destruction of habitat may be slowing, but the rate of decline of prairie dogs apparently remained unaffected. By using our estimated rates of loss of colonies throughout the study, we projected a 40% probability that prairie dogs will be extirpated from this area by 2067, though that probability could range as high as 50% or as low as 20% depending on the rate of urban development (i.e. habitat loss). Prairie dogs may fulfill important ecological roles in urban landscapes, and could persist in the Denver area with appropriate management and habitat protections.

We present a technique to programmatically collect comments made about videos on YouTube, a popular social media website, and use content analysis to categorize and compare the frequency of comment...

For over a century there have been continual efforts to incorporate nature into urban planning. These efforts – known as urban reconciliation– aim to manage and create habitats that support biodiversity within cities. Given that species select habitat at different spatial scales, understanding the scale at which urban species respond to their environment is critical to the success of urban reconciliation efforts. We assessed species-habitat relationships for common bat species at local (50-m), medium (500-m), and broad (1-km) spatial scales in the Chicago metropolitan area and predicted bat activity across the greater Chicago region. We found that habitat characteristics across all measured scales were important predictors of silver-haired bat (Lasionycteris noctivagans) and eastern red bat (Lasiurus borealis) activity, and big brown bat (Eptesicus fuscus) activity was significantly lower at urban sites compared to rural sites. We also found that open vegetation had a negative effect on silver-haired bat activity at the local scale but a positive effect at the medium-sized scale, indicating potential shifts in the relative importance of some habitat characteristics at varying scales. These results demonstrate that local-scale effects may be constrained by broader spatial patterns. Our findings highlight the importance of considering scale in urban reconciliation efforts and our landscape predictions provide information that can help prioritize urban conservation work.

As urbanization continues to expand across the globe, urban wildlife research is critical for urban planners and conservation practitioners to create livable cities for both humans and wildlife. In 2012, Magle et al. conducted a foundational review on the status of urban wildlife research. The authors described the status of urban wildlife research as of 2010 and offered suggestions for future advancements in the field. We conducted a systematic review following Magle et al. (2012) to provide a 10-year update on the state of urban wildlife research globally and describe recent advancements in the field. We also conducted a broader literature search to further explore current research trends and continuing research gaps within the urban wildlife field. We found that urban wildlife publications have continued to increase within the last decade. However, the sectors conducting the research and the geographical location of publications stayed relatively the same. Similarly, the predominant taxa studied were mammals and birds across the 2000–2020 decades. After broadening our literature search, we were able to identify a new emphasis on management-related research and research in the fields of disease ecology, social science, and methodological development. Critical knowledge gaps remain, however, as there was still a significant lack of studies on herptiles, arthropods, and fish. Additionally, studies from Africa, South America, and Asia – three of the fastest urbanizing continents – were underrepresented. Our results provide conservation practitioners a summary of emerging topics and recommendations for future research that will contribute to creating healthier and more livable cities for both wildlife and people.

Foraging ecology and food patch studies are commonly used to elucidate the environmental perceptions of wild, free-ranging animals. Their application to captive animals, however, especially those in zoos, is still in its infancy. To illustrate some specific applications of zoo foraging ecology, we provide a study that evaluated: (i) whether patch use and giving-up densities (GUDs) can reveal areas of preference within an exhibit for zoo species; (ii) if food patches provide an effective form of behavioural enrichment; and (iii) if visitor interest and behaviour is affected by food patch presence. A combination of behavioural observations, and experimental food patches and giving-up densities were used to address these objectives in Parma wallabies (Macropus parma) and Patagonian cavies (Dolichotis patagonum) at Lincoln Park Zoo, Chicago, Illinois USA. GUDs revealed distinct areas of preference and aversion within the exhibit for cavies, but not so for the wallabies. For both species, presence of food patches increased foraging behaviours, decreased inactive behaviours, and increased within-exhibit movement, demonstrating that food patches serve as an effective behavioural enrichment technique. The use of food patches also revealed striking differences between individuals, particularly for the pair of cavies. There were encouraging trends toward increased visitor number and stay-time when food patches were present in each exhibit, but the effect was not statistically significant. These results suggest that utilising patch use, GUDs, and foraging theory in zoo populations may enhance animal welfare, and can inform improvements to exhibit design directly from the animal's perspective. We conclude with a broader discussion of zoo foraging ecology as an emerging field, with suggestions for future avenues of research.

Nature-based green infrastructure projects have become a common consideration in cities for the benefits they provide to humans. However, the co-benefits provided to wildlife are often assumed but not critically assessed. The value of green infrastructure for wildlife likely depends on the habitat requirements of a species and the spatial context of that habitat within the landscape. We examined the influence of both natural characteristics and those of the built environment, including noise, on bat species distribution in the Chicago, Illinois metropolitan area. Occupancy rates for four of the eight species in our study responded positively to the proximity of water sources, and three species responded negatively to increasing urban noise. When noise and water were examined in association with one another, the benefits of being adjacent to water quickly diminished as noise levels increased. These results illustrate the importance of considering both natural elements and the built environment in urban habitat design. Our findings demonstrate that cities - when carefully planned and designed - can provide important habitat for bats, a taxa of high conservation need.

Free-roaming cat populations are increasing in urban areas around the world. Management strategies remain controversial, as attempts to rapidly minimize the impact of cats may conflict with finding an ethical means of population reduction in this domesticated species. Trap-Neuter-Return (TNR) is a non-lethal strategy which can theoretically lead to population decline with an ethical approach. The present study aimed to estimate free-roaming cat populations and also to measure the efficacy of a one-year TNR campaign in a highly urban area. Using a sight/resight methodology, we examined free-roaming cat populations in four sites across two neighbourhoods (Harlem and Bedford-Stuyvesant) in New York City. Sampling was repeated after 1 year, during which an intensive TNR effort occurred in each of those areas. Results from this study found population estimates range from 2.6-4.1 cats/km. Additionally, we found between 78-98% turnover in each study area. After one year of TNR, the proportion of sterilised individuals in our treatment sites increased to 50%. Model results suggest there is no evidence that sterilised individuals are more likely to be encountered, indicating that sterilisation may not affect movement patterns of cats. Free-roaming cats occur at high densities at all study sites, though populations varied, even within the same neighbourhood. We found evidence of considerable migration within study sites, which further complicates the application of a sterilisation management strategy. Management strategies directed toward free-roaming cats, such as TNR, may require a broad-scale approach, involving different facets of the community and should occur over multiple years.

Native bird diversity is compromised in urban areas partially because of the lack of available habitat for some species. As urbanization continues to increase, it is important to understand the behavioral dynamics of bird species located in cities. The Black-capped Chickadee (Poecile atricapillus), as a generalist species, offers an opportunity to investigate how common native birds use urban areas that lack natural habitat features while additionally competing with non-native, invasive species (e.g., House Sparrows, Passer domesticus). Our objectives were to determine nest box use and nesting success rate of Black-capped Chickadees and House Sparrows using artificial nest boxes in natural habitats located in an urban area, specifically a recently restored 5.66- ha area of pond sedge surrounded by oak (Quercus spp.) savannah located south of Lincoln Park Zoo in Chicago, Illinois, USA. Artificial nest cavities with 3 cm diameter entrance holes, intended to exclude House Sparrows, were installed on...

Human-wildlife conflict is increasing as urbanization expands and wildlife species adjust to living near people. Translocation is often used to manage human-wildlife conflict because it is considered to be humane, yet fates of translocated animals are largely unknown. As an urban adapter, woodchucks (Marmota monax) are a common source of human-wildlife conflict due to their burrowing, foraging, and scent-marking behavior. We examined survival and movements of 27 nuisance woodchucks captured by a nuisance wildlife operator in the Chicago metropolitan area, radiomarked with internal transmitters, and translocated to exurban release sites mimicking typical practices. We also captured and radiomarked 16 resident woodchucks from the release landscape for comparison. Translocated woodchucks moved farther than residents immediately post release with no evidence of homing and most left the release site. Annual survival did not differ between translocated and resident woodchucks. However, survival was extremely low (0.18) compared to previous estimates for woodchucks, primarily due to high predation by coyotes (Canis latrans). Translocation should be used only when other nonlethal methods are ineffective (e.g., exclusion, removing food sources, selecting unpalatable plants for gardens). When necessary, the practice of translocation could be improved by reducing predation risk for translocated animals, either by selecting release sites with low predation risk, or by using soft-release methods, such as acclimation enclosures or artificial burrows.

As urban habitats vary in composition and structure along the urban to rural gradient, different degrees of urbanization likely result in a diversity of landscape responses from wildlife. We investigated this relationship with the Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana), an urban adapted species that is both common and understudied in highly metropolitan landscapes. We investigated which landscape factors affect opossum occupancy, colonization, extinction, and detection by using a large system of motion-triggered camera traps in the Chicago metropolitan area over 10 seasons from spring 2010 to summer 2012. Opossum patch occupancy rates were highest near natural water sources regardless of urbanization, whereas occupancy rates in patches ≥1000 m from natural water sources decreased with increasing urbanization. Our results suggest opossums have relaxed habitat needs at intermediate levels of disturbance, as the ability to locate anthropogenic water sources may allow them to occupy previously uninh...

European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) in North America often achieve high densities in urban regions and compete with other cavity-nesting species for nest sites, including the rapidly declining red-headed woodpecker (Melanerpes erythrocephalus). However, at a continental scale, European starling populations are unrelated to trends in red-headed woodpeckers. To assess whether urbanization influences population trends of cavity-nesting bird species and the relationship between European starlings and other cavity-nesting birds, we compared population patterns within the highly urbanized region of Cook County, Illinois, USA (which encompasses the city of Chicago) with data from surrounding rural counties. We used data from the Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) and the Christmas Bird Count (CBC) spanning 1970–2017, and i) quantified population trends of 19 cavity-nesting species, and ii) examined the patterns of relationships of each of these species with European starlings. Models fit to population trends over time with a variable for urban/rural location included were selected over models without urban/rural location for 14/17 species in the BBS and 14/15 species in the CBC. Starlings showed population declines in both urban and rural BBS and in urban CBC, while they increased in the rural CBC. Red-headed woodpecker populations declined across every survey set and location. Contrary to predictions, the counts of some species in surveys were significantly positively correlated with European starling population trends, while none were significantly negatively correlated. Our findings suggest that urban and rural locations add information to population trends of cavity-nesting species, and that European starlings have little negative impact on cavity-nesting birds in either rural or urban locations, suggesting that habitat loss and other factors are likely greater impacts on red-headed woodpeckers and other members of the cavity-nesting guild.

Artificial nighttime lights have important behavioral and ecological effects on wildlife. Combining laboratory and field techniques, we identified behaviorally relevant levels of nighttime light and mapped the extent of these light levels across the city of Chicago. We began by applying a Gaussian finite mixture model to 998 sampled illumination levels around Chicago to identify clusters of light levels. A simplified sample of these levels was replicated in the laboratory to identify light levels at which C57BL/6J mice exhibited altered circadian activity patterns. We then used camera trap and high-altitude photographic data to compare our field and laboratory observations, finding activity pattern changes in the field consistent with laboratory observations. Using these results, we mapped areas across Chicago exposed to estimated illumination levels above the value associated with statistically significant behavioral changes. Based on this measure, we found that as much as 36% of the greenspace in the city is in areas illuminated at levels greater than or equal to those at which we observe behavioral differences in the field and in the laboratory. Our findings provide evidence that artificial lighting patterns may influence wildlife behavior at a broad scale throughout urban areas, and should be considered in urban habitat planning.

Cities harbor biodiversity, which has complex outcomes, both for humans and other animals. The situation is particularly complicated with carnivorous species such as mesopredators, which elicit strong positive and negative responses from urban residents. As cities are dominated by anthropogenic forces, socioeconomic factors likely play a major ecological role that has gone mostly unexplored for mammalian species. We used a large database of motion-triggered camera imagery to investigate relationships between landscape and socioeconomic features and the distribution of three mammalian mesopredator species in Chicago, IL. Coyotes and raccoons were most likely to colonize less urban sites, and coyotes were least likely to go extinct within sites with a high average per capita income. Opossum showed somewhat different dynamics, with added availability of habitat and increased housing density decreasing odds of new colonization. In general the socioeconomic variables performed at least as well as the habitat factors tested, indicating that there is a significant role of both biotic and abiotic features in driving species distribution in this area. We suggest that new ecological frameworks incorporating both socioeconomic and ecological factors will be needed for the long-term management and conservation of wildlife in urban regions.

We studied the seasonal home range of individual white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) as it related to landscape pattern (forest-edge density; the ratio of agriculture to forest), local deer density, and harvest intensity in a population managed for control of chronic wasting disease in south central Wisconsin. The ratio of agriculture to forest showed strong positive correlation to home range size for most age and sex classes, while forest edge density was inversely related to home range size for adult females. Individual home range size proved largely independent of density and harvest intensity. It is likely that socio-spatial factors (i.e., fidelity) and the availability of food and cover influence home range size more strongly than hunting pressures or density reductions. This suggests localized reductions may create areas of low density without changing the behavior patterns of the population. Our findings suggest a more spatially-targeted effort to reduce density, by removal of socia...

We examined how predator or prey presence, as well as local and landscape factors, influence the distribution of coyotes (Canis latrans) and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in the Chicago metropolitan area. We collected data for 2 years at 93 study sites along 3 transects of urbanization using motion-triggered cameras. Our primary objective was to determine the relationship among coyote and deer spatial and temporal distribution, habitat characteristics, and human activity using multi-season patch occupancy models. Coyote occupancy was most strongly linked to rates of site visitation by humans and dogs, and was more likely farther from the urban center, with coyote colonization of sites inversely related to road density, housing density, and human and dog site visitation. Deer more frequently occupied sites with high canopy cover near water sources and colonized smaller sites with reduced housing density and human and dog presence. Expected predator–prey dynamics were altered in this highly urban system. Though we predicted deer would avoid coyotes on the landscape based on an “ecology of fear” framework, deer and coyote occupancy showed a strong positive association. We suggest that a scarcity of quality habitat in urban areas may cause the species to co-occupy habitat despite potential fawn predation. Modifying human foot traffic in green spaces may represent a useful tool for management and conservation of large urban mammals.

Human–coyote conflict in urban environments is an emerging concern throughout the U.S., but specific factors that influence rates of conflict remain largely unknown. We explored a possible link between coyote conflict rates and the distribution of black-tailed prairie dogs, a highly interactive species, in an urban landscape. Overall, rates of coyote conflict appeared elevated in proximity to undeveloped land, but these rates were highest near habitat fragments where prairie dogs were absent, and 15–45% lower within 400 m of fragments colonized by prairie dogs. Multivariate analyses comparing conflict points to random points generated in the same area also revealed that smaller and younger habitat fragments were associated with greater levels of conflict. However, the effect of nearby habitat fragments lacking prairie dogs was at least as strong as the effect of fragment area, a factor known to influence coyote distribution. We propose several possible explanations for reduced human–coyote conflicts on or near prairie dog colonies, including colonies acting as more preferred foraging habitat than backyards or neighborhoods, and changes in human behavior near colonies. Inter-species dynamics are rarely investigated in urban systems, and our study provides a first look at potential interactions between two politically controversial but ecologically important species. We suggest that future studies evaluate the impact of prey availability on human–carnivore conflicts to determine whether conservation of prey species may represent a valuable management strategy in urban areas.

Tree cavities are used by a wide variety of species for nesting, food storage, and cover. Most studies on cavity availability have been conducted in forests, and little is known about urban areas. With urbanization, species that excavate cavities may be less abundant, natural tree-decay processes are managed, and tree densities are reduced, all of which may influence tree-cavity availability. We investigated three questions: 1) What is the prevalence of tree cavities in different habitats in the Chicago area? 2) How do the characteristics of natural and woodpecker-excavated cavities and cavity-trees differ across habitats? 3) How does the urban landscape influence the prevalence of tree cavities? We tested the capacity for large urban parks and residential areas to provide tree cavities at levels similar to forested areas. We surveyed 1,545 trees in these three habitats for excavated and natural (caused by decay) cavities. Cavities were most available in forests, where the density of trees was highest. We found that a similar proportion of trees in forests and parks had excavated cavities, but excavated cavities were rare in residential areas. Trees containing cavities were larger than control trees and had more decay, and excavated cavities were in larger trees with more decay than natural cavity trees. Canopy cover was the main landscape variable influencing excavated cavity availability. Our results suggest that the prevalence of tree cavities may not be a limiting factor for urban wildlife, however that is contingent on the levels of use of natural cavities, which is currently unknown.

Common buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica L.) is an invasive Eurasian shrub that has successfully invaded many of the woodlands of the northeastern United States. While the ecology and invasive properties of this species are well documented, little research has focused on buckthorn's effects on wildlife species. In this study, we surveyed 35 forest preserves and natural areas in the Chicago metropolitan region for the presence of buckthorn. Motion-triggered infrared cameras were used to detect mammal species in sites with and without buckthorn. Cameras were active for an average of four weeks for seven seasons during 2010 and 2011. White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus Zimm.) were more likely to be present in sites without buckthorn, while coyotes (Canis latrans Say) and Virginia opossums (Didelphis virginiana Kerr) were more likely to be present in sites invaded with buckthorn. While there was no overall significant difference in raccoon (Procyon lotor L.) presence between the two site types, raccoons were more likely to be present in invaded sites during the spring season, a trend that was also observed for other mesocarnivores. Our results strongly suggest that the presence of invasive buckthorn impacts habitat use and the presence of wildlife species.

Eastern cottontail rabbits (Sylvilagus floridanus) are common, conspicuous denizens of urban environments. They are associated with human-wildlife conflict due to vegetation damage. Prior to this study, population dynamics of this species in urban environments remained largely uncharacterized. For three consecutive winters, we used classic field ecology methods (mark-recapture and mark–resight surveys) to estimate demographic parameters of rabbits in a city park in Chicago, Illinois. Rabbits occurred in densities as high as 16.3 rabbits/ha, which is comparatively high for the Midwestern United States. An annual survivorship of 30.4 ± 12.9 % SE was similar to that observed in natural environments in similar climates. This result refuted our hypothesis that urban rabbits would have higher annual survival rates than rabbits in natural settings due to food subsidies supplied by landscaping in parks. Mean distance between trap locations for rabbits trapped three or more times was 43.14 ± 30.01 m SD, suggesting that rabbits in the urban study area had smaller home ranges than rabbits in non-human-dominated habitats. This study contributes to our understanding of population dynamics of a human-wildlife conflict species in urban environments and provides useful information for managers dealing with damage caused by rabbits. The mark-resight method employed here could be used by managers to estimate pre- and post-management population sizes of other conflict species, for example Canada geese (Branta Canadensis), in parks and green spaces, provided that the species is trappable, visible, and individuals have relatively small home ranges.

The vast majority of urban bird research is conducted over relatively short time frames (1–2 years), thereby limiting our ability to understand how temporal processes influence urban bird populations and communities. To further evaluate the importance of and contributions provided by long-term (≥5 years) ecological studies of urban avifauna, we reviewed the published literature for such studies to (1) explore and characterize the focus of long-term urban bird research, (2) identify gaps in our knowledge base, and (3) make suggestions for future research. We identified 85 papers published between 1952 and 2014 for this review. While long-term studies ranged from 5 to 175 years, most were ≤30 years in length. Community-level studies predominately quantified how urbanization affects species richness and composition through time, while population-level studies were primarily on single species of larger body size (≥80 g). Almost every study we reviewed was conducted in North America and Europe, a result that is generally unsurprising as temperate zones and wealthier countries are overrepresented in the literature. Overall, long-term studies provide unique insights into how slow and subtle processes, land-use legacies, time-lagged responses, and complex phenomena influence urban birds. To better encourage the inclusion of long-term studies in urban avian ecology, we suggest that ecologists should (1) keep long-term phenomena in mind when constructing short-term studies, (2) make published datasets accessible, and (3) provide adequate metadata regarding how data was collected.

As human populations’ transition to urban and suburban environments, there can be an evident disconnect from the natural world. Interactive programs can introduce youth to scientific methods with the hope of invoking an interest in nature. A majority of these programs, however, are brief and do not revisit key concepts after the data collection process is complete. To address this, the Hurvis Center for Learning Innovation and Collaboration designed programs primarily for underserved Chicago-area high school youth to work as “student field researchers.” The Partners in Fieldwork program contains 9 schools with 577 students collecting wildlife data throughout the school year using camera traps, bird surveys, giving-up density (GUD) studies, and acoustic bat monitors for our Urban Wildlife Institute (UWI) scientists. Cognitive gains and affective impact of participating students were analyzed by administering pre- and post-knowledge questionnaires, post-program surveys (0, 6, and 12 months after the program), and focus group discussions. Another program, the Research Apprenticeship Program (RAP) allows four teen youth to shadow both the UWI and the Davee Center for Epidemiology and Endocrinology at Lincoln Park Zoo. Youth collected data over the course of eight weeks ranging from butterfly and dragonfly surveys to evaluating stress hormones in Bactrian Camels. RAP youth compiled and analyzed their data into scientific posters and a formal presentation. An extension of the RAP program allows youth to continue their experience once a month during the school year by strengthening their career building skills and designing a custom field trip for their peers. Further evaluation of both programs is currently underway.

The Lincoln Park Zoo founded the Urban Wildlife Institute (UWI) in 2008, with the goal of conducting science to minimize conflict between humans and wildlife in cities around the world. UWI has since created a massive and unprecedented urban wildlife biodiversity monitoring network throughout the Chicagoland region. We will briefly summarize some of our findings on Chicago’s mammal, bat, arthropod, and bird populations, with special emphasis on our database of over 200,000 images of urban wildlife captured using motion-triggered cameras. Our research has not only uncovered new information about how urban animals select habitat and persist within urban landscapes, but has also helped connect the people of Chicago to the natural world through educational outreach and citizen science initiatives such as Partners in Fieldwork, and Chicago Wildlife Watch. UWI is working to ensure humans and wildlife can coexist in cities around the world, and also to remind growing urban populations that urban areas are ecosystems that are just as capable of inspiring wonder as the wildest jungles.

Despite expanding urban areas and increased awareness of urbanization impacts on wildlife, trends in urban wildlife studies have not been evaluated systematically. We performed a thorough assessment of such research, evaluating urban wildlife publications from 16 leading journals in animal behavior, conservation, ecology, general science, landscape ecology, and wildlife biology from 1971 to 2010. Using a systematic review process, we quantified trends in urban wildlife research over time and in different scientific fields, and also assessed author affiliations, geographic and taxonomic focus, research topics, and study site types. In general, rates of publication for urban wildlife research have been increasing, although still remain low (

Urbanization and habitat fragmentation have the potential to influence bird communities. In addition, these phenomena, as well as ongoing lethal control measures, have also greatly reduced the range of the black-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus) since the beginning of the 20th century. Although prairie dogs are highly interactive species that can influence avian communities, few studies have investigated whether these interactions persist in urban settings. Our goal was to investigate the relative impacts of habitat fragmentation and prairie dogs on bird communities within an urban matrix. We performed bird surveys on 20 habitat fragments (10 colonized by prairie dogs, 10 uncolonized by prairie dogs) distributed throughout the Denver metropolitan area, and calculated Shannon–Weiner diversity and richness of all birds and native species, as well as total counts of grassland birds and raptors. Diversity, richness, and counts of many species increased with increasing fragment connectivity, and decreased on fragments isolated for longer periods of time. Avian diversity and richness did not differ between fragments with and without prairie dogs, suggesting that this element of the ecological role of prairie dogs is not fully retained in urban habitat. Future studies of the role of prairie dogs as keystone species in urban systems should include other taxa as well as consider the influence of the urban matrix surrounding prairie dog habitat. Our results emphasize that conservation of urban avian diversity should focus on landscape connectivity as well as local habitat features.

We analyzed the survival rates of 160 Odocoileus virginianus (White-tailed Deer) over 6 years in the area of Wisconsin's highest prevalence of chronic wasting disease. Survival was very high for all age/sex classes and varied by season but not by year. When we omitted hunting mortality, yearlings and adults had similar annual survival, with survival of males (0.83–0.89) slightly lower than survival of females (0.91). However, including hunting mortality reduced survival of yearling and adult males to 0.72 and 0.41, and survival of yearling and adult females to 0.88 and 0.83, respectively. We also observed seasonal patterns, characterized by reduced survival across all sex and age classes during the rut season (10 October to 31 December), which includes the period of maximum hunting. Six mortalities (8.3%) were associated with chronic wasting disease, including one deer that died from the disease. We find no evidence that CWD was substantially increasing mortality rates during the duration of our ...

Wild birds are important in the maintenance and transmission of many zoonotic pathogens. With increasing urbanization and the resulting emergence of zoonotic diseases, it is critical to understand the relationships among birds, vectors, zoonotic pathogens, and the urban landscape. Here, we use wild birds as sentinels across a gradient of urbanization to understand the relative risk of diseases caused by three types of zoonotic pathogens: Salmonella pathogens, mosquito-borne West Nile virus (WNV) and tick-borne pathogens, including the agents of Lyme disease and human anaplasmosis. Wild birds were captured using mist nets at five sites throughout greater Chicago, Illinois, and blood, faecal and ectoparasite samples were collected for diagnostic testing. A total of 289 birds were captured across all sites. A total of 2.8% of birds harboured Ixodes scapularis--the blacklegged tick--of which 54.5% were infected with the agent of Lyme disease, and none were infected with the agent of human anaplasmosis. All infested birds were from a single site that was relatively less urban. A single bird, captured at the only field site in which supplemental bird feeding was practised within the mist netting zone, was infected with Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica. While no birds harboured WNV in their blood, 3.5% of birds were seropositive, and birds from more urban sites had higher exposure to the virus than those from less urban sites. Our results demonstrate the presence of multiple bird-borne zoonotic pathogens across a gradient of urbanization and provide an assessment of potential public health risks to the high-density human populations within the area.