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This report is commissioned by the Norwegian Directorate for Civil Protection (DSB) and the Norwegian Building Authority (DiBK). RISE Fire Research has been commissioned to evaluate the fire in the multi-storey car park at Stavanger airport Sola on the 7th January 2020. The aim is to promote learning points for public benefit with regard to the extent of the fire, regulations, extinguishing efforts, structural design, effects on the environment and the role of electric vehicles in the fire development. Information has been collected via interviews, on-site inspection, contact with stakeholders, review of relevant regulations, documents and literature. Design of the building: Active, passive and organizational fire protection measures have been evaluated. In our opinion, the multi-storey car park should have been placed in Fire class 4 (“brannklasse 4”), since it was adjacent to important infrastructure for society. The fire design documentation for building stages B and C has shortcomings in terms of assessment of sectioning, installation of fire alarm or extinguishing systems, as well as assessment of the fire resistance of the loadbearing structure. There are a number of inconsistencies that indicate that the fire risk has not been fully mapped and assessed in connection with the preparation of the fire designs. Regulations: No deficiencies were found in the regulations relevant to this incident. Small adjustments in wording between different editions of regulations (e.g. guidance for technical regulations) can have a major impact on how the regulations should be interpreted. It is important that the authorities highlight such changes and that the fire consultant who develop a fire engineering concept avoid uncritical reuse of content from older fire concepts. Handling of the incident: How the fire service and other parties handled the incident during the emergency phase has been evaluated, and learning points have been identified for the following areas (details in section 7.3): The basis for creating national learning after major events, action plans, exercise and training, collaboration and common situational understanding, management tools, call-out, information sharing and initial situation report, immediate measures, the goal of the effort and tactical plan, organization of the site, communication and collaboration, logistics and depots, as well as handling uncertainties and follow-up. Electric vehicles: Water analyses of selected metals relevant for batteries in electric vehicles did not show any lithium, and only low concentrations of cobalt. This indicates that batteries in electric vehicles did not contribute to pollution of nearby water resources. Observations during the fire indicate that electric vehicles did not contribute to the fire development beyond what is expected from conventional vehicles. Further technical studies of the batteries from the burned electric and hybrid vehicles are necessary to evaluate whether batteries from electric vehicles were involved in the fire. Environmental impact, extinguishing foam: During the incident, a lot of extinguishing foam was used, but this led to a limited environmental impact. The extinguishing foam was found not to add substantial amounts of PFAS during the extinguishing efforts. Analyses conducted by COWI still show PFAS content in all water samples, which is linked to previous emissions. Oxygen depletion as a result of release of extinguishing foam is considered to have led to local toxic effects on the aquatic environment, but not a general negative effect on the sea life in Solavika. There is a need for stronger awareness of, and focus on the use of, extinguishing foams and logging of the amount of foam used. Here one may learn from Sweden. Environmental impact, smoke: Smoke from the fire was mainly not driven in the direction of the terminal buildings, and during the first period only in the direction of areas with low population density. The fire smoke affected the evacuation of a nearby hotel. Eventually, the wind turned in the direction of areas with higher population density, and a population warning was sent out. Based on few health consultations (11 at the emergency room and 2 in hospital), as well as the municipality’s assessment of the incident, it is assumed that the fire smoke had limited health consequences for neighbours. The smoke content has not been analyzed. Finally; learning points from evaluation of the fire are relevant for many stakeholders, such as the fire service, authorities, construction design, for the owner and for research in the field. Funded by: Norwegian Directorate for Civil Protection and the Norwegian Building Authority Cover image: Photo of the car park, two weeks after the fire. Photo: RISE Fire Research Trondheim 2020

This report is commissioned by the Norwegian Directorate for Civil Protection (DSB) and theNorwegian Building Authority (DiBK). RISE Fire Research has been commissioned to evaluatethe fire in the multi-storey car park at Stavanger airport Sola on the 7th January 2020. The aim isto promote learning points for public benefit with regard to the extent of the fire, regulations,extinguishing efforts, structural design, effects on the environment and the role of electric vehiclesin the fire development. Information has been collected via interviews, on-site inspection, contactwith stakeholders, review of relevant regulations, documents and literature. Design of the building: Active, passive and organizational fire protection measures have beenevaluated. In our opinion, the multi-storey car park should have been placed in Fire class 4(“brannklasse 4”), since it was adjacent to important infrastructure for society. The fire designdocumentation for building stages B and C has shortcomings in terms of assessment of sectioning,installation of fire alarm or extinguishing systems, as well as assessment of the fire resistance ofthe loadbearing structure. There are a number of inconsistencies that indicate that the fire risk hasnot been fully mapped and assessed in connection with the preparation of the fire concepts. Regulations: No deficiencies were found in the regulations relevant to this incident. Smalladjustments in wording between different editions of regulations (e.g. guidance for technicalregulations) can have a major impact on how the regulations should be interpreted. It is importantthat the authorities highlight such changes and that the fire consultant who develop a fireengineering concept avoid uncritical reuse of content from older fire concepts. Handling of the incident: How the fire service and other parties handled the incident during theemergency phase has been evaluated, and learning points have been identified for the followingareas (details in section 7.3): The basis for creating national learning after major events, actionplans, exercise and training, collaboration and common situational understanding, managementtools, call-out, information sharing and initial situation report, immediate measures, the goal ofthe effort and tactical plan, organization of the site, communication and collaboration, logisticsand depots, as well as handling uncertainties and follow-up. Electric vehicles: Water analyses of selected metals relevant for batteries in electric vehicles didnot show any lithium, and only low concentrations of cobalt. This indicates that batteries inelectric vehicles did not contribute to pollution of nearby water resources. Observations duringthe fire indicate that electric vehicles did not contribute to the fire development beyond what isexpected from conventional vehicles. Further technical studies of the batteries from the burnedelectric and hybrid vehicles are necessary to evaluate whether batteries from electric vehicleswere involved in the fire. Environmental impact, extinguishing foam: During the incident, a lot of extinguishing foamwas used, but this led to a limited environmental impact. The extinguishing foam was found notto add substantial amounts of PFAS during the extinguishing efforts. Analyses conducted byCOWI still show PFAS content in all water samples, which is linked to previous emissions.Oxygen depletion as a result of release of extinguishing foam is considered to have led to local toxic effects on the aquatic environment, but not a general negative effect on the sea life inSolavika. There is a need for stronger awareness of, and focus on the use of, extinguishing foamsand logging of the amount of foam used. Here one may learn from Sweden. Environmental impact, smoke: Smoke from the fire was mainly not driven in the direction ofthe terminal buildings, and during the first period only in the direction of areas with lowpopulation density. The fire smoke affected the evacuation of a nearby hotel. Eventually, the windturned in the direction of areas with higher population density, and a population warning was sentout. Based on few health consultations (11 at the emergency room and 2 in hospital), as well asthe municipality’s assessment of the incident, it is assumed that the fire smoke had limited healthconsequences for neighbours. The smoke content has not been analyzed. Finally; learning points from evaluation of the fire are relevant for many stakeholders, such as thefire service, authorities, construction design, for the owner and for research in the field.

This is sub-report 2 of the BRAVENT project (Fire and smoke distribution in ventilation ducts) which presents results from experiments where the risk of spreading fire and heat in ventilation ducts has been investigated. In the experiments, the effect of fire insulation on the duct, and mixing hot smoke with air at room temperature in the duct (as from adjacent rooms) has been investigated. The ventilation duct was connected to a furnace at one end and a fan at the other end. The furnace was heated to the desired temperature, and hot smoke was drawn through the duct at a certain velocity. Thermocouples measured the temperature both inside the duct (smoke gas temperatures) and on the duct’s external surface at different distances from the furnace.

Fire safety in buildings used for play and recreational activity This project has been carried out on behalf of the Norwegian Building Authority (DiBK) and the Norwegian Directorate for Civil Protection (DSB) as part of the research agreement between DSB and RISE Fire Research. The aim of the project has been to determine whether activity centres (offering indoor activities for different age groups, e.g. indoor playgrounds, trampoline parks and gymnastics halls) are well equipped to reduce the risk of ignition, spread of fire, and smoke production, and for high heat release as well as to handle escape in case of fire. All with regard to the particular combination of the number and type of visitors, type of activity in the premises, as well as the large amount of combustible and potentially highly flammable furnishings present in the building. In this report we have described fire engineering issues specifically related to the activity centres, partly based on a study of technical reports from the buildings’ planning phase and monitoring reports from the operational phase. Our main findings are related to • Lacking overall fire safety evaluation regarding the building and the safety plans of the responsible business owner with respect to:- The significance of the furnishing and use of material for personal safety.- Distribution of responsibility to evaluate the furnishing in a risk perspective. • Ignition and early fire development:- There is not enough focus on ignition sources in the design and planning phase.- The fire performance of materials is not sufficiently taken into account during the design and planning phase and the requirements for documentation are insufficient and not relevant enough. • Escape:- Children's behaviour during escape is not taken into account when planning.- The activity in activity centres is not taken into account during the planning phase.- The effect of the interior (both material properties, physical position in the room and geometry) on the escape routes and escape time is not taken into account when planning.- Deviations from the requirement for low-placed way guidance systems are made on an uncertain basis. • Organizational measures:- Organizational measures are hardly mentioned in the fire concepts.- Deviations regarding organizational measures during the operational phase is the responsibility of business owners. This indicates uncertainty or lack of competence of regulations

Recently questions about whether spread of heat and smoke in ventilation ducts during a fire represent an increased risk for personal safety and loss of properties have been raised. The technical solutions currently used to fulfill the pre-accepted performance given in the guidelines to the building regulations with regard to fire protection of ventilation ducts are largely based on descriptions in SINTEF's Building Design Sheet 520.352 on fire- and smoke protection of ventilation systems, and in BV Netts Guide for fireproof ventilation, also known as the BVNett Guide. This topic was once again raised in connection with the revision of the 2017 edition of the building regulations, when it was pointed out in inquiry statements that the pre-accepted performances are insufficiently defined and that the solutions outlined in the Building Design Sheet and the BVNett Guide are not sufficiently documented. In order to elucidate this topic and provide scientific documentation on the extent to which the spread of heat and smoke in ventilation ducts represents a risk to persons and properties, the BRAVENT project (Fire and smoke spread in ventilation ducts) was initiated. The project investigates issues related to heat dissipation in ventilation ducts, clogging of filters in ventilation systems due to smoke, the effect of the seal-up strategy with respect to pressure build-up in the fire room and smoke spread through leakages in the construction. The objective of the sub-task presented in this report was to: Compile a theoretical basis for the experiments and analyzes to be carried out. 1. Map relevant regulations for fire protection of ventilation systems. 2. Map standards that are the basis for determining the fire resistance of components included in a ventilation system. 3. Map the state-of-the-art regarding a. the need to fire insulate ventilation ducts. b. the need to install bypass channels to prevent the filter systems from being clogged by smoke particles. c. the effect of installing fire dampers in all fire-partitions with respect to smoke spread. d. how smoke can be spread via ventilation ducts and leaks in the building structure. e. the pros and cons of seal-up and extraction strategies. © RISE Research Institutes of Sweden This is sub-report 1, which summarizes the relevant, fire-related theory and state-of-the-art in the focus area. The report serves as the theoretical basis for planning of experiments and for the other activities in the BRAVENT project.

Fire safety in energy efficient buildingsBackgroundThere has been a lot of focus on energy efficient buildings recently, and there is a rapid development of new materials, construction methods and technologies on the market. Improvement of one product property may affect other aspects, for example the fire safety. Norwegian authorities want to get an overview of possible challenges associated with the fire safety of energy efficient buildings.ObjectiveThe main objective of this study has been to survey challenges associated with energy efficient buildings and fire safety, with a special focus on solar cells, batteries and fire extinguishment. The project is divided into different work packages. Sub-goals for each of these have been to:• Study solar cell technology in the context of the total energy supply chain to uncover fire-related challenges.• Increase the understanding of safety challenges, solutions and regulations related to energy storage of batteries in buildings.• Increase the understanding of challenges associated with fire extinguishment in energy efficient buildings where solar cells and/or batteries are used.• Achieve an overall understanding of the interaction between different solutions in energy efficient buildings, and how these interactions affect the fire safety.ConclusionsGeneral• The interaction between various new technical and energy efficient solutions could affect fire safety, with regard to ignition, fire development, fire dynamics, evacuation and firefighting efforts.• When it comes to fire safety, questions often arise regarding what should be considered as sufficient and adequate documentation. Here, industry guidelines and exchange of knowledge is important, until relevant regulations are in place.• It is important that fire safety is considered, and that responsibilities and tasks are coordinated when new solutions are implemented.• The industry often feels that regulations are adapted too slowly when new solutions are launched.• Our overall impression is that most professionals in the industry take fire safety seriously. Serious actors, good quality of design and installation are important to ensure a safe development.Solar cells• No substantial difference has been found in fire engineering challenges for large photovoltaic (PV) installations compared to small ones.• Solar cells mounted on facades should be treated similarly to other facade claddings with cavities behind the cladding, with regard to fire testing and classification.• The European regulations for fire testing of roofing materials are not well suited for testing of roofs with building attached photovoltaics.• According to German statistics, building integrated photovoltaics have a significantly higher fire risk than building attached photovoltaics. However, this has not been thoroughly studied during recent years.• It is primarily the electrical voltage that the solar cells generate that can be problematic for firefighting, including re-ignition hazard, shock hazard due to direct contact with energized components and through extinguishing water.Batteries• It is relatively well known how a fire in a battery may start, and this knowledge is transferable to stationary batteries in buildings.• Lack of knowledge, experience and training within fire brigades with regard to large battery systems in buildings, may contribute to application of unfortunate extinguishing strategies.• It is important that the fire service is informed when large battery systems are installed in buildings, to ensure that an extinguishing strategy exist in case of fire.• In many cases, cooling with water is the best extinguishing method, but this can result in high water consumption as the battery itself supplies oxygen to the fire, and the battery encapsulation may prevent the water from reaching the fire zone.• Regulations for domestic battery systems should be better defined with regard to placement and adequate safety levels. Guidelines for people who are considering installing battery systems in their homes would be beneficial.Airtight buildings• There is no substantial difference in the fire development in airtight and conventional buildings during the initial phases of the fire. According to fire modelling studies there are more pronounced differences at later stages of the fire.• The differences are mainly an increased pressure build-up and that the fire more rapidly becomes ventilation-controlled in airtight buildings.• There is also an increased risk of backdraft for fires in airtight buildings, which represents an increased risk for the firefighters.

RISE Fire Research har på oppdrag fra Firemesh kartlagt og sammenfattet regelverk og krav knyttet til ettersyn av automatiske slokkeanlegg, samt innhentet opplysninger om pålitelighet til sprinkleranlegg.

False alarm? Effects of reduscing unnecessary dispathces by fire and rescue services.

Fire is a major threat in the petroleum industry. However, little has been published about the fire related incidents that have occurred in the Norwegian petroleum sector. To gain more knowledge, data from 985 incidents in the 1997 - 2014 period has been analysed. Examples of factors studied are type of facility involved, involved area or system, consequences and severity level. The analysis of the fire incidents reveals that even though many incidents are reported, the large majority of these have not imposed risks for severe fire accidents. It has also provided valuable information regarding possible dangerous situations, commonly in-volved areas, types of equipment as well as types of activity that were involved. Twenty-nine percent of the incidents were false alarms, which must be regarded as a high number in an industry where any production stop could be extremely costly.

Denne rapporten er utarbeidet på oppdrag fra Direktoratet for samfunnssikkerhet og beredskap (DSB). DSB har bedt RISE Fire Research om å bistå med evalueringer knyttet til bruken av gassbeholdere ved serveringssteder, overnattingssteder og forsamlingslokaler.

I denne studien er informasjon fra brannstatistikk og andre kilder fra perioden 2005 – 2014 analysert, for å få mer detaljert kunnskap om hvem som omkommer i brann og hvorfor de omkommer. Dermed kan tiltak iverksettes mer målrettet for å redusere antall omkomne. Følgende spørsmål er forsøkt besvart i studien: 1. Hvilke risikofaktorer forbindes med de som omkommer i branner i Norge? 2. Hva er årsakene til dødsbranner i Norge? 3. Hvordan kan dødsbranner best forebygges? I den aktuelle perioden er det registrert 517 branner med 571 omkomne. Vi har kartlagt informasjon fra 347 politirapporter, identifisert 387 omkomne og trukket ut informasjon fra pasientjournalene til 248 av de omkomne.

Eight out of ten fire-related fatalities occur in dwellings. It is a fact that smoke detectors save lives, which emphasizes the importance of every home having a functioning smoke detector. In Norway, smoke detectors in dwellings are mandatory, and recommendations on which detector technology to use and the position of the detectors are given. Smoke detectors should be installed on the ceiling, outside of dead-air space (close to walls). In this study, ten smouldering fire experiments have been conducted to: • investigate if smoke detectors with CO sensing can alert residents at an earlier stage than photoelectric smoke detectors, consequently increasing chances of egress and survival for a sleeping person. • measure concentrations of toxic gases in a room where a smouldering fire occurs and investigate if tenability limits are exceeded when n photoelectric smoke detector is activated. • investigate if smoke detectors placed within dead-air space are activated at a later stage than smoke detectors placed according to the recommendations.

Åtte av ti som omkommer i brann dør i hjemmet. Det er stadfestet at røykvarslere redder liv, noe som understreker hvor viktig det er at alle hjem har fungerende røykvarsler. I Norge er det krav om at fungerende røykvarsler er installert i alle boliger, og det er også gitt anbefalinger om deteksjonsprinsipp og plassering av røykvarslere. Det er anbefalt å benytte optiske røykvarslere fremfor ioniske, og at disse monteres i tak, utenfor dødluftsrom (nær vegg). I denne studien er det utført ti forsøk med ulmebrann i et testrom innredet med en seng for å: • undersøke om røykdetektorer med CO-sensor kan varsle beboer på et tidligere tidspunkt enn optiske detektorer, og følgelig øke sjansene for evakuering. • kartlegge nivået av giftige gasser i et rom hvor ulmebrann oppstår, og undersøke om grenseverdiene for forgiftning er overskredet når en tradisjonell, optisk røykvarsler går til alarm. • undersøke om røykdetektorer som er plassert i dødluftsrom reagerer tregere enn detektorer som er plassert i henhold Norsk brannvernforenings anbefalinger.

Denne rapporten beskriver en enkel metode som kan anvendes ved mindre omfattende evalueringer av branner. Med metode menes her en systematikk for gjennomføring av evalueringer. En mindre omfattende evaluering vil være en gjennomgang der det enten er få forhold ved brannen som skal undersøkes, eller der situasjonen er relativt oversiktlig. Metoden er deretter anvendt på en brann i et sykehjem. Evalueringen av denne hendelsen er ikke fullstendig gjennomført, men fungerer som et eksempel på hvordan metoden kan brukes.

I byggeforskrift av 1985 ble det innført krav til røykvarslere i nye boliger. I Forskrift om brannforebyggende tiltak og brannsyn (FOBTOB) av 1990, ble det i tillegg innført krav om røykvarslere i eksisterende boliger. Et litteraturstudium har blitt gjennomført for å kartlegge teknologistatus for røykvarslere i boliger. Det er lagt vekt på hvilken forskning og utvikling som er gjort med tanke på røykvarslere for boliger siden år 2000. Hvilke deteksjonsprinsipper kan benyttes, og kan ny teknologi gjøre detektorene bedre? Rapporten oppsummerer litteraturstudiet, innenfor forskjellige fokusområder, og gir i tillegg forslag til videre forskning på temaet. Røykvarslere for bruk i bolig

Feil bruk av komfyrer står for nesten 20 % av alle branner med kjent årsak i Norge. I perioden 1998 – 2007ble det registrert 1240 branner hvor årsaken var tørrkoking på komfyr. Direktoratet for samfunnssikkerhet ogberedskap (DSB) ønsket med dette prosjektet å kartlegge omfanget og årsakene til at slike branner oppstår,og hva som kan gjøres for å forhindre dem. Det er gjennomført et litteraturstudium som gir oversikt over internasjonal forskning og erfaringer påområdet. DSBs brannstatistikk fra perioden 1998-2007 er analysert, og et utvalg på 40 av politietsetterforskningsrapporter fra komfyrbranner er gjennomgått. En rekke ulike matvarer ble testet i røykkammer med utstyr for gassanalyse, for å prøve å karakteriseresammensetningen av røyken før antennelse. Det viste seg imidlertid at utstyret ikke var egnet for denne typenprøvemateriale, og derfor ikke ga resultater som kunne brukes videre i prosjektet. Til sist er 7 komfyrvakter blitt testet i fullskalaforsøk med brann på komfyrtopp. Det er gjennomført i alt 76tester.

Jet fires pose serious safety hazards in situations where pressurised gas tanks are stored close together. A jet fire originating from one tank will likely damage another and lead to additional fires and even explosions. To prevent this from happening, equipment has to built to be able to endure the high heat fluxes produced in jet fires. SP Fire Research has developed a test procedure where equipment can be tested for jet fires producing heat fluxes of 350 kW/m$^2$. This thesis has worked towards implementing automatic control of the temperature in the oven of this test rig. The temperature inside the oven is regulated by fans supplying the oven with additional air, a change in fan frequency leads to a change in temperature. The oven has prior to this thesis been built in two different ways, resulting in two systems with different dynamics, one over ventilated and one under ventilated. Mathematical models were created to decide the relationship between fan inputs and the oven temperature in both oven builds. This was done by modifying an existing compartment fire temperature model to accommodate the effects the jet fire has on the system, as well as the bigger openings in the compartment (oven). The resulting models were then verified by comparing simulations to data from previous tests. With satisfying comparison results, the models were used to test different control schemes through simulation. These simulations suggested that PI control should work in both builds. Consequently, PI control was tested in the over ventilated build. The results were conclusive with simulations, and the PI control was verified as a suitable control scheme for the over ventilated system. It is expected to work just as well in the under ventilated system, though it has not yet been tested. In addition to the main objective of temperature control, some additional functionalities have been assessed. Reference control schemes are suggested, and a way to automatically detect and terminate faulty thermocouples. The advantages and disadvantages of the two builds were reviewed. The over ventilated build was suggested as the favorable choice, but should be continuously reviewed through changing weather conditions as it is more affected by weather than the under ventilated build, as the test rig is situated outside.