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Disability inclusion in diving tourism is a relevant topic of study, considering the documented benefits to disabled communities, the growing demand for inclusive diving tourism opportunities globally, and the limited information on the status quo. This qualitative study assessed the perspectives on disability inclusion in diving tourism among 28 diving industry members (who were not disabled divers) and one representative (who was a disabled diver) from the largest disabled diving organization in South Africa, which is an important diving destination internationally. Benefits, challenges, involvement, and specific perspectives in inclusive diving tourism were captured through thematic analysis of participants' narratives. The results confirmed the multidimensional benefits of diving to disabled people and highlighted barriers to inclusive diving tourism related to logistics, knowledge, awareness, and attitude of the industry, marketing, and collaboration between stakeholders. This study drew useful recommendations to enhance disability inclusion in diving tourism and exploit its potential for the development of this industry.

Underwater photography is increasing in popularity. It can have positive effects such as conservation awareness and citizen science. Often, however, photographers neglect good environmental practices and engage in potentially damaging behaviors to the marine environment. The management of underwater photography is particularly relevant in marine protected areas (MPAs), where uses of the marine environment need to be carefully balanced. This study aimed to assess and compare underwater photographers' and nonphotographers' knowledge of codes of conduct in MPAs, as well as self-reported and observed compliance with these codes of conduct, and perceptions of the health of the marine environment including dive sites. Through direct observations and questionnaires, 84 divers were studied in three Italian MPAs in the summer of 2021. The difference between underwater photographers and nonphotographers was stark, with the former being more likely to violate MPA rules compared to the latter. There was no difference in knowledge of the effects of their behavior on the marine environment between underwater photographers and nonphotographers. Our results can help provide management considerations to reduce the impacts of underwater photography. Awareness campaigns, predive briefings and the promotion of low-impact underwater photography courses can help to limit unsustainable underwater behaviors among underwater photographers. Effective regulation of underwater photography can increase the carrying capacity of dive sites and have positive environmental and economic effects on MPAs and diving destinations.

With the launch of the UN Ocean Decade, the value of inclusive approaches encouraging better stewardship and improving the management of ocean resources has been increasingly advocated. Public engagement in marine issues through volunteering in marine conservation and science can be a tool to strengthen the connection to the ocean, stimulating behaviour change and support for solutions that can mitigate human impacts on marine environments and resources. This study investigated, through an international online survey, behavioural intentions to partake in marine volunteering among people with a vested interest in marine tourism and recreation, conservation and research. Particular focus was given to drivers, barriers and enablers in marine volunteering. The participants (N = 473) were interested in marine volunteering, driven mainly by ecocentric motives, self-development, and personal well-being. Important barriers to marine volunteering included money and access, with time and skills being secondary. While the participants were convinced they would participate in marine volunteering in the future, they agreed that information and education, time, better access and incentives would enable participation. Previous volunteering experience resulted in stronger drivers to participate in marine volunteering, and perspectives also varied according to demographic variables including age and educational background. The results of this study were used to guide strategies for marine volunteer recruitment, highlighting the importance of well-designed outreach campaigns, inclusivity, and partnerships to support marine volunteering as a positive form of public engagement in marine stewardship and science.

Recreational activities in marine environments have many benefits, such as physical and mental wellbeing, contact with nature, and nature connectedness. These benefits can translate into other positive outcomes, including proenvironmental behavior and attitude and ocean stewardship. Cold-water recreation including diving (scuba and free diving) is increasingly popular, yet its phenomenology is understudied. The available research, however, shows that there is great potential for cold-water diving to contribute to those benefits that can result in a "marine mindset." This qualitative study aimed to add to the body of knowledge regarding cold-water recreation, by investigating through a blanket assessment the motivations and experiences of independent divers in the kelp forests of Cape Town, South Africa, and their putative influence on proenvironmental attitude and behavior. One hundred divers were interviewed telephonically in 2020 and 2021, and data were extracted and analyzed using both thematic and statistical analysis. Divers were motivated by experiences including hedonism; sensorial; spirituality, reverence, and gratitude; learning; connection with nature; well-being; challenge; escapism; flow; and socialization and communitas. Specific motivations and experiences resulted in proenvironmental behaviors and attitudes. The results of this study confirmed the value of kelp diving as an activity with numerous benefits to people and marine environments and were used to delineate recommendations for marketing and management that can foster the growth of coldwater diving as a sustainable form of marine-based recreation.

Marine environments provide ecosystem services jeopardised by human activities, resulting in impacts requiring urgent attention. In Europe and southern Mediterranean countries like Italy, marine environmental problems of note include marine litter, overfishing and climate change, among others. Public engagement is essential in mitigating these problems. In this context, investigating public perceptions and what influences these perceptions is necessary to design the right public engagement strategies. This study evaluated perceptions of marine environmental issues among coastal recreational users along the Conero Riviera in the Adriatic Sea. This is a location used for many coastal activities, affected by several human impacts and considered to become a marine protected area. A total of 202 coastal recreational users were interviewed regarding their perceptions of marine environmental issues including awareness, concern, observed changes in the local coast, and pro-environmental behaviours to combat marine environmental issues. Regression analysis was used to determine influential variables in perceptions. The participants were mainly aware of and concerned about issues including pollution, litter and overfishing. They had observed changes in the local coast primarily encompassing wildlife reduction, toxic algal growth and mucilage. They engaged in pro-environmental behaviours principally including recycling, litter collection and pollution reduction. Awareness of marine environmental issues influenced concern, while the observation of coastal changes and pro-environmental behaviours were mainly influenced by demographic variables like water use and gender. The results of this study were used to make recommendations concerning the design of communication and education campaigns and strategies to stimulate pro-environmental behaviours to support marine conservation.

Beach-based recreation is an important ecosystem service. Its management relies on balancing human needs and the integrity of coastal ecosystems. Management, however, can be unbalanced in favor of the former, for example, through bather safety programs that are lethal to sharks and other marine species. The promotion of eco-friendlier shark control strategies is underpinned by an understanding of human engagement with shark hazard mitigation (SHM). This study used a questionnaire survey to assess beach visitors’ (N = 843) perceptions of SHM at locations implementing lethal and nonlethal shark control in South Africa. Perceptions were dependent on demography, water use, attitudes towards sharks, and local contexts. Elements requiring attention encompassed the role of fear in shaping perceptions, limited awareness of local SHM, misunderstanding of the ecological harm of some mitigation types, and personal responsibility in mitigating risks. Strategies to garner support for pro-shark beach-based recreation are discussed.

Non-tropical marine protected areas (MPAs) are likely to experience growing demand from scuba diving tourism, given the pressures on their tropical counterparts. The vulnerability of non-tropical M...

Shark diving tourism is an activity that can contribute significantly to coastal economies, while also offering tremendous help to shark conservation efforts. Nevertheless, like any form of wildlife-based tourism, shark diving poses management challenges revolving around ethical and safety considerations. Safety in shark diving normally focuses on operational self-efficacy and adherence to shark diving codes of conduct to prevent incidents such as shark bites and to minimize ecological harm. However, safety issues in shark diving can arise from personal choices to exceed standard certification limits. Any detrimental results are capable of casting doubts on the sustainability of shark diving, thus jeopardizing its future as well as shark conservation. This study addressed compliance with shark diving codes of conduct and standard diving safety by examining the knowledge, attitude, and behavior of people who engage in free scuba diving with predatory sharks. The research made use of mixed methods of data collection, including interviews with shark divers at two popular shark diving destinations in Southeast Africa (n = 86) and an online questionnaire survey among shark divers (n = 89). The results showed that divers had positive attitudes towards sharks and shark diving. However, a notable proportion declared that they had exceeded certification limits and broken codes of conduct during shark diving. In particular, diving experience and being a professional diver were correlated significantly with poor safety attitudes and behavior. The results highlight the need to create an understanding among scuba divers of the connection between shark diving safety and conservation, including the negative implications of safety breaches, whether big or small, for the future of shark diving tourism and of sharks.

Marine algae offer numerous extrinsic and intrinsic ecosystem services. Human impacts and climate change, however, have contributed to disrupting or compromising their ecology and distribution. Continuing research and monitoring of marine algae are pivotal but require public support. This study investigated public knowledge of and attitude towards marine algae and support for their research and monitoring. The focus was coastal users, a diversified group of interest for research into the perceptions of marine algae. The study was carried out in the Conero Riviera (Adriatic Sea, Italy), a location where coastal users come into contact with several types of marine algae. Semi-structured interviews were conducted in 2020 with 202 randomly selected scuba divers, beach and promenade visitors in the Riviera. Data analysis was thematic and statistical. Participants possessed basic knowledge of marine algae, which was more sophisticated among scuba divers. Coastal users ascribed both extrinsic and intrinsic values to marine algae. Most participants recognised the importance of protecting and managing marine algae while supported research and monitoring, prioritising types of marine algae which provide specific extrinsic and intrinsic ecosystem services. Based on the results, strategies of outreach, communication and engagement are suggested for the study location and types of coastal users. This study contributed to the growing body of research on Ocean Literacy, confirming the importance of investigating perceptions of marine resources to steer research, management and outreach strategies.

As marine protected areas (MPAs) face various coastal threats, including development, their incorporation into integrated coastal management (ICM) is essential. Stakeholder participation is a major, albeit poorly addressed, component of the integration of MPAs into ICM. Driven by shared interests and values, stakeholders can signal when coastal activities become unacceptable according to good governance principles of MPAs and ICM. This study assessed stakeholders’ perceptions of coastal development associated with an MPA in southern Mozambique. Data were collected through face-to-face interviews and focus groups with 31 individuals representing five stakeholder groups. Stakeholders acknowledged the connection of MPAs with ICM at a sophisticated level, identifying coastal development threats potentially affecting the MPA, and proposing mitigation strategies. The results of this study confirmed the qualities of stakeholder participation to complement MPA management and offer guidance on ICM.

Lucrezi, S., 2021. Remote public engagement in coastal citizen science: A systematic scoping review. Journal of Coastal Research, 37(6), 1271–1287. Coconut Creek (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208. Coastal monitoring and management can be enhanced by citizen science (CS), especially because Information and Communications Technology (ICT) enables remote public engagement in CS. To date, this type of engagement would benefit from a thorough investigation to highlight its supportive role to coastal CS, identify its unique challenges, and propose solutions and research avenues to sustain its development. A systematic scoping review and qualitative analysis of scientific papers (N = 53) described the state of the art in remote public engagement in coastal CS. The analysis revealed unique advantages of remote engagement in coastal CS, including flexibility, social inclusivity, and organised communication management. Challenges, mainly associated with technology, could be solved by simplifying interfaces to streamline communication and participation in CS. The review identified research gaps and confirmed the potentially positive contribution of remote engagement in coastal CS, which could enhance coastal monitoring, management, public participation, and stewardship.

Public involvement in beach litter clean-ups can help tackle marine litter while providing experiential learning, raising awareness and stimulating anti-litter behaviour. Beach visitors contribute to litter generation by inappropriate discarding behaviour, and engaging them in litter removal can be beneficial. This study assessed visitors' (N = 512) stated willingness to participate in litter clean-ups at Elegushi Royal Beach, Nigeria, which is under pressure from litter problems visitors contribute to, and potentially emblematic of organised litter clean-ups. Beach visitors recognised marine litter as a global and national problem but did not perceive the case study beach as being littered. Willingness to participate in beach litter clean-ups was marginal. However, it was positively correlated with previous participation in litter clean-ups, perceived collective responsibility and the importance of policy and investments in reducing litter. These results were used to propose a framework to engage and recruit visitors in beach litter removal campaigns.

Scuba diving tourism may both positively and negatively affect the natural environment, as well as human economies and societies. Marine protected areas (MPAs) in particular attract scuba diving tourism. Even though the activities of scuba divers could conflict with the conservation agendas of MPAs, they also potentially could endorse and support the management of MPAs. Thus, depending on the types of interactions that develop between scuba diving tourism and MPAs, more or less rigid management actions may be required. Although studies in temperate locations are rare, there is evidence that scuba divers in these locations tend to be more experienced, knowledgeable about local issues, responsible towards the environment, and willing to participate in stewardship, compared with divers at tropical destinations. This study assessed the profile of scuba divers at a temperate MPA in Italy, to determine which types of diving management actions are needed, and to understand how the potential of scuba divers could be exploited for the management of temperate MPAs. Data on the profile of 279 scuba divers in the Portofino MPA, Italy, were collected during the summer of 2015. Scuba divers in Portofino are generally experienced, loyal, satisfied, aware of the code of underwater conduct, knowledgeable of ecosystems in the MPA, and willing to participate in marine conservation activities. Although some important considerations must be taken into account regarding the management of scuba diving activities, a case is made that scuba divers could exert many positive impacts on MPAs. A conceptual model of the conservation-oriented behavior of scuba divers and its impacts both inside and outside MPAs is proposed. The positive messages and actions of scuba divers inside MPAs appear to exert potentially positive effects on other diving destinations outside the MPAs.

1. Most ecological studies require knowledge of animal abundance, but it can be challenging and destructive of habitat to obtain accurate density estimates for cryptic species, such as crustaceans that tunnel deeply into the seafloor, beaches, or mudflats. Such fossorial species are, however, widely used in environmental impact assessments, requiring sampling techniques that are reliable, efficient, and environmentally benign for these species and environments. 2. Counting and measuring the entrances of burrows made by cryptic species is commonly employed to index population and body sizes of individuals. The fundamental premise is that burrow metrics consistently predict density and size. Here we review the evidence for this premise. We also review criteria for selecting among sampling methods: burrow counts, visual censuses, and physical collections. 3. A simple 1:1 correspondence between the number of holes and population size cannot be assumed. Occupancy rates, indexed by the slope of regression models, vary widely between species and among sites for the same species. Thus, ‘average’ or ‘typical’ occupancy rates should not be extrapolated from site- or species specific field validations and then be used as conversion factors in other situations. 4. Predictions of organism density made from burrow counts often have large uncertainty, being double to half of the predicted mean value. Whether such prediction uncertainty is ‘acceptable’ depends on investigators' judgements regarding the desired detectable effect sizes. 5. Regression models predicting body size from burrow entrance dimensions are more precise, but parameter estimates of most models are specific to species and subject to site-to-site variation within species. 6. These results emphasise the need to undertake thorough field validations of indirect census techniques that include tests of how sensitive predictive models are to changes in habitat conditions or human impacts. In addition, new technologies (e.g. drones, thermal-, acoustic- or chemical sensors) should be used to enhance visual census techniques of burrows and surface-active animals.

Sandy beaches offer invaluable services, the overexploitation of which threatens their survival. Management responses may be inappropriate, focussing on limited aspects of beaches and neglecting key characteristics. This study developed and tested a new integrated assessment tool for sandy beaches, using seven recreational South African beaches as case study. The tool was based on a beach description matrix, forming the Beach Description Index; an assessment of beachgoers’ attitude and opinion, forming the Human Dimension Index; and a monetary assessment, forming the Monetary Index. Values for each index were classified according to management attention/recreational favourability, opinion/attitude, and economic value, respectively. The average of the indices formed a Beach Evaluation Index, which was used to rate the performance of and compare the case study beaches. Within limits, the evaluation tool successfully identified management priorities, public concerns, and economic aspects regarding the beaches, all of which can be generalised to other beaches worldwide.

Sharks have historically suffered from a negative image, which has been indirectly fuelling public fear and government decisions to kill sharks, as part of bather protection programmes in various countries. Scientists are arguing, however, that the public opinion of sharks is increasingly positive, and that opposition to lethal shark control and to negative shark framing is growing. Positive attitudes and behaviour towards sharks tend to be influenced by an array of factors, which ought to be considered in studies aimed at effectively steering shark conservation actions. This study used a questionnaire survey of 1138 beach visitors in South Africa, together with structural equation modelling, to investigate human perceptions of sharks, and their influence on outcome variables including attitudes and behaviour towards shark hazard mitigation and shark framing. The results show that basic knowledge and attitudes towards sharks have a significant effect on the outcome variables. Additionally, attitudes towards sharks moderate the effect of perceived risk from sharks on the outcome variables. The results support arguments of public concern for sharks, and provide guidance for strategies aimed at garnering more support for shark conservation.

Citizen Science (CS) strengthens the relationship between society and science through education and engagement, with win-win benefits. Marine Citizen Science (MCS) is increasingly popular, thanks to society’s growing interest in marine environments and marine issues. Scuba diving significantly increases the potential of MCS, thanks to the skills and behavioural properties of people who participate in the sport. To be able to exploit this potential, however, MCS needs to face challenges related to CS, to scuba diving activities and to the broader scuba diving industry. In particular, engagement and recruitment of potential volunteers, as well as retention of active participants, represent key milestones. In order to reach these milestones, information is required on current participation levels of scuba divers in MCS, as well as the motivations behind participation, and the opinions held by potential participants in MCS. This study explored different case studies and methods of data collection to provide an overview of actual and potential participation in MCS by the scuba diving community. The results show that scuba divers, whether active or potential marine citizen scientists, are well disposed towards MCS. Some barriers, however, prevent the full participation of scuba divers as marine citizen scientists. Certain barriers extend beyond the control of both divers and MCS projects, while others, such as limited access to MCS projects and poor feedback after participation, can and should be addressed. The recommendations of this research provide strategic direction to MCS, so that the broad scuba diving community can be successfully integrated into MCS. These recommendations acknowledge the important role played by stakeholders in the scuba diving industry, as well as professional intermediaries and hired experts.

Lucrezi, S. and Saayman, M., 2015. Beachgoers' demands vs. Blue Flag aims in South Africa. The Blue Flag is a beach award aimed to preserve features of the beach environment. While it is assumed that the Blue Flag attracts tourism, this depends on factors such as the socio-demographic background of beachgoers, their perception of beach attributes, and their knowledge and perception of the Blue Flag. This research used structural equation modeling (SEM) to investigate relationships between perceived beach attributes (beach selection criteria, deterrent factors of the beach, and beach quality rating) and beachgoers' knowledge and perception of the Blue Flag award on three Blue Flag and three non-Blue Flag beaches in South Africa. A single statistically significant relationship emerged between beach quality rating and evaluation (both positive and negative views, which are not necessarily mutually exclusive) of the Blue Flag award by beachgoers. The data highlight the importance of generating bottom...

Sandy beaches represent typical venues for recreation and tourism worldwide, as well as part of the lifestyle and identity of coastal communities. Their overexploitation, however, threatens their survival. Especially in urban areas, beach management requires balancing needs by different users and obligations to protect beach functions, including conservation. In light of this, research about the human dimension of beach ecosystems has been advanced as a way to assist planning and decision making in beach management. This study assessed beachgoers' perceptions of sandy beach conditions in South Africa, by means of a questionnaire survey. The effects of demographic profile, travelling habits, motivations to visit, and recreational preferences on beachgoers' perceptions of beach conditions were tested. Beachgoers shared a general concern for the wellbeing of sandy beaches, with particular reference to the state of biodiversity and conservation. They also gave great importance to the values underlying beach ecosystems. Three motivations to visit groups and four recreational preferences types were identified. Demography, travelling habits, motivations to visit, and recreational preferences all influenced perceptions of beach conditions. The results from this study were used to draw management recommendations, with particular attention towards the promotion of conservation while also maintaining the recreational quality of urban sandy beaches. The results also highlighted the relevance of considering users' views as a tool in decision-making processes in Integrated Coastal Zone Management.

Lucrezi, S. and van der Merwe, P., 2015. Beachgoers' awareness and evaluation of the Blue Flag Award in South Africa. Beach awards such as the European Blue Flag are increasingly adopted in many countries as an environmental brand to promote better beach management and encourage tourism. However, the validity of the Blue Flag award has been criticized in the literature, and research shows that the award is still not widely known and has marginal influence on tourists' beach selection. This study, conducted at six popular South African beaches, three with and three without Blue Flag status, investigated awareness and evaluation of the Blue Flag award among 579 beachgoers. Results from a structured questionnaire showed that over half of the participants, mostly people on the Blue Flag beaches, knew about the Blue Flag award and its criteria; however, approximately one-third of the participants were unaware of it. Participants tended to be less tolerant of supposed water-quality degradation than the...

The morphodynamic state and habitat properties of microtidal sandy beaches largely account for variations in macrofauna structure. In ecological theory, the habitat harshness hypothesis and the habitat safety hypothesis explain variations in macrofauna populations of the intertidal and supratidal zones of sandy beaches. The former hypothesis states that intertidal macrofauna should increase from reflective to dissipative beaches. The latter hypothesis supports the idea that supratidal species are more successful on reflective beaches, given their relative independence from the swash. However, trends in abundance of supratidal species, particularly crustaceans, have been unclear and further investigation is therefore needed. This study tested the two hypotheses on the largest invertebrate intertidal-to-supratidal crustacean on sandy beaches, namely the ghost crab (genus Ocypode). Variations in ghost crab burrow density, abundance, size and across-shore distribution were measured on four warm-temperate microtidal sandy beaches in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Burrow numbers increased with beach morphodynamic state, while average burrow size decreased. The steepest, narrowest and most inundation-prone beach represented the least hospitable environment for the ghost crabs. The results that are reported here tend to support the habitat harshness hypothesis. However, the relevance of i) individual physical variables, ii) tidal action, and iii) the ecology of various species, in shaping ghost crab population dynamics, is also discussed. The results contribute to the knowledge regarding population dynamics of intertidal and supratidal crustaceans across beach types.

The ecosystem services provided by sandy beaches are increasingly recognised and valued globally. Nevertheless, sandy beaches remain under threat from the overexploitation and degradation of these services, mostly attributable to human pressures. Management challenges for sandy beaches include taking into account their diversity and their inherent aspects, from environmental to social. In developing countries, in particular, lack of resources exacerbates these challenges. Therefore, low-cost strategies focused on interventions with spatial priority and aimed at cooperative governance, while addressing the diversity of sandy beaches, are favoured. The inclusion of social drivers, a prescription designed to contribute to Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM), appears to fit this role by means of actions engaging stakeholders. In this context, users data are receiving more attention with an eye to designing and implementing management strategies for different sandy beaches. Recreational ones, in particular, are under pressure, including development and direct use by visitors, and their functions can be easily jeopardised through homogeneous, partial or blanket management. This paper discusses the utility of users data so as to assist differential management of recreational sandy beaches in South Africa. This country was selected as a case study given that it is developing rapidly and its long coastline is dominated by sandy beaches, many of which are valued and exploited for recreation and tourism. The data under investigation concern sandy beach visitors or beachgoers. These data, collected through self-administered questionnaire surveys, included socio-demographic profiles, travel motivations, beach selection criteria and an evaluation of the state of the beach. Twelve recreational sandy beaches with different urbanisation levels were selected for fieldwork. Between April 2013 and April 2014, 1200 questionnaire surveys were distributed to the beachgoers; 953 of these were completed and returned. There was a notable variability in the profile and perceptions of the beachgoers according to urbanisation and geographic location of the beaches. Such variability supported the case for differential and ad hoc management of recreational sandy beaches. In addition, some users’ views matched with actual scenarios encountered on the beaches under study, confirming the validity of users data in assisting sandy beach management. Implications for the findings of this study are discussed and span actions based on users’ priorities, regulations and interventions to better educate users on the functionality of sandy beaches and the importance of conservation.

We developed a game in virtual reality to make players experience an underwater environment and to increase their awareness towards a sustainable behaviour while diving. The game was tested with the Presence Questionnaire during a Science Festival in November 2016. The assumption was that a high degree of presence due to their immersion into the virtual environment would enhance players' empathy for the marine environment and, as a consequence, would make them more sensitive to sustainability and environmental issues related to diving. Our data show that players across various age categories did indeed feel immersed and involved in the game. However, we could not specifically test whether their level of environmental awareness had increased after playing this game.

Marine biology is an increasingly preferred study major and career among youth. This is particularly the case of countries with extensive coastlines, such as Italy. In order to understand what exactly is fuelling this trend, and whether it culminates in the successful absorption of marine biologists as valued workforce by society, this study investigated the motivations, satisfaction and career goals of marine biology undergraduate students in Italy. Although it was expected that scientific literacy in formal education plays an important role in motivating marine biology students, the results showed that intrinsic motivations and informal education play a more crucial role. The students consider realistic career options, although these imply having to leave the country. The results of this study were used to make recommendations on the importance of marine and ocean literacy in the formal educational system in Italy, and the general improvement of scientific literacy in formal school education. Recommendations were also made on the potential improvements that can be made by higher education institutions, to better equip marine biologists with the skills required by emerging sectors in society. Finally, considerations were made regarding the dimensioning of supply, offer and marketing of employment opportunities for marine biologists in Italy

Introduction: Scuba diving is an important marine tourism sector, but requires proper safety standards to reduce the risks and increase accessibility to its market. To achieve safety goals, safety awareness and positive safety attitudes in recreational scuba diving operations are essential. However, there is no published research exclusively focusing on scuba divers’ and dive centres’ perceptions toward safety. This study assessed safety perceptions in recreational scuba diving operations, with the aim to inform and enhance safety and risk management programmes within the scuba diving tourism industry. Materials and Methods: Two structured questionnaire surveys were prepared by the organisation Divers Alert Network and administered online to scuba diving operators in Italy and scuba divers in Europe, using a mixture of convenience and snowball sampling. Questions in the survey included experience and safety offered at the dive centre; the buddy system; equipment and accessories for safe diving activities; safety issues in the certification of new scuba divers; incidents/accidents; and attitudes toward safety. Results: 91 scuba diving centres and 3,766 scuba divers participated in the study. Scuba divers gave importance to safety and the responsiveness of service providers, here represented by the dive centres. However, they underestimated the importance of a personal emergency action/assistance plan and, partly, of the buddy system alongside other safety procedures. Scuba divers agreed that some risks, such as those associated with running out of gas, deserve attention. Dive centres gave importance to aspects such as training and emergency action/assistance plans. However, they were limitedly involved in safety campaigning. Dive centres’ perceptions of safety in part aligned with those of scuba divers, with some exceptions. Conclusion: Greater responsibility is required in raising awareness and educating scuba divers, through participation in prevention campaigns and training. The study supports the introduction of programmes aiming to create a culture of safety among dive centres and scuba divers. Two examples, which are described in this paper, include the Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment protocol for dive centres and scuba divers, and the Diving Safety Officer programme to create awareness, improve risk management, and mitigate health and safety risks.

Stakeholder engagement is a critical component of marine protected area (MPA) management. Education and capacity-building initiatives, in particular, have the potential to empower stakeholders, promote collaboration, create a culture of marine stewardship and encourage alternative and sustainable livelihoods. Empirical evidence on the impacts of these initiatives on stakeholders and MPAs is however still lacking. This study tested the impact of an ocean literacy, marine education and environmental monitoring initiative on stakeholders' views of conservation, community and livelihood in the Ponta do Ouro Partial Marine Reserve (PPMR) in southern Mozambique. Data were collected via two focus groups, one before and one after participation in the initiative. Stakeholders who participated in this research included representatives from governance, tourism and education sectors in the PPMR. Participation in the initiative had a positive effect on stakeholders' views of conservation, community and livelihood. Following the initiative, some of these views became more aligned with the goals of the PPMR, while others highlighted important issues to be addressed by management. This study demonstrates the bilateral nature of stakeholder engagement in MPAs, including stakeholder empowerment and steering management strategies.

Off-road vehicles (ORVs) are popular in coastal recreation, although they have negative impacts on sandy shores. In South Africa, ORVs are banned from most coastal areas, while some areas are designated for restricted ORV use, providing an opportunity to assess whether ORV traffic restrictions translate into biological returns. In Sodwana Bay, the impact of ORVs on ghost crab populations was investigated. During Easter 2012, ghost crab burrows were counted on beach sections open and closed to traffic. Burrow density in the Impact section was less than a third that of the Reference section, and by the end of the study burrow size in the Impact section was half that of the Reference section. ORV traffic caused a shift in burrow distribution to the Lower beach. However, differences in burrow densities between sections were 14 times smaller than differences obtained at a time when ORV use in Sodwana Bay was not controlled. While confirming the well-established detrimental effects of ORV use on sandy beach ecosystems, results demonstrated that traffic restrictions on beaches measurably minimize impacts to the fauna, thus translating into clear-cut biological returns. http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00267-013-0223-5

Coral reefs are threatened by impacts such as from scuba diving, and ongoing research is required to assess diving impacts, diver behavior and environmental knowledge. This study investigated perceived diving impacts, reef condition and norms among scuba divers at Sodwana Bay (South Africa). Divers viewed contact with coral as damaging, and perceived environmental degradation at dive sites. However, most divers saw activities such as photography as causing little or no damage to reefs. One meter or less was believed to be a safe distance from the reef or the wildlife to avoid contact or disturbance, and encounter norms were high. Age and experience influenced most perceptions, although cannot be accepted as reliable indicators of divers' perceptions or behavior, due to the heterogeneous conduct of divers of various experience and age as described in literature. The importance of human perceptions to understand what strategies need implementation in diving management is discussed.

Scuba diving is a growing form of tourism reflecting positively on the economy of coastal communities. However, any negative impacts associated with scuba diving need to be prevented to safeguard the critical ecosystem services provided by reefs. Studies have explored the behaviour of scuba divers by psychological and skill-related factors to formulate plans for the management of reefs and diving tourism. This study represents a contribution to the growing evidence concerning scuba divers' perceptions according to these factors. Scuba divers at Sodwana Bay, South Africa were interviewed on their diving motivations, excitement for marine life, experience, and perceptions of impacts, reef condition, and norms. It was hypothesised that motivations and marine life preferences had a significant relationship with scuba divers' perceptions and norms, and that experience mediated this relationship. Hypotheses were tested via structural equation modelling. Although motivations varied significantly according to diving experience, the hypotheses were not confirmed by the structural model. These findings highlight the importance of a stronger educational component across all diving specialisation levels, and emphasise the need to further research the potential links between psychological variables and behaviour in scuba divers.

Animal movement is a pivotal element of many ecological processes, and on ocean-exposed sandy shores, ghost crabs (genus Ocypode) undertake extensive nocturnal forays on the beach surface. Because crab populations are also threatened by vehicle traffic, indicators that can detect sublethal effects before population declines are manifest are important. To this end, we tested on a barrier island in Eastern Australia whether movement patterns of crabs respond predictably to disturbance by vehicles; this was done by tracking (using the spool-and-line technique) crabs at night in beach sections open and closed to traffic. Beach traffic not only halved population densities of crabs on the unvegetated beach seawards of the dunes, but it also fundamentally changed crab behaviour and movement: individuals from beach areas rutted by tyre tracks travelled shorter distances in a more erratic zigzag pattern, and they had significantly compressed home ranges. Such behavioural changes linked to human pressures could be well suited as an early warning signal for wider negative ecological impacts (as demonstrated by reduced abundances). They also emphasize the need to incorporate sublethal effects into the assessment and management of ecological changes resulting from beach recreation.

Human pressures on coastlines are increasing globally, particularly on urban beaches where maintenance of sand budgets and erosion control are the main focus of current shoreline management. By contrast, biological attributes are rarely considered and few, if any, ecological indicators are routinely monitored on beaches. Abundance of ghost crabs (genus Ocypode ) generally responds predictably to human stressors, and is thus a potentially suitable ecological indicator for beaches. The crabs construct burrows with a single, prominent opening at the surface, and population sizes are commonly estimated by counting the number of these burrow openings. While such ‘burrow counts’ are attractive as a low-cost and simple monitoring technique, they may violate a key performance criterion of indicators: not to be overly sensitive to expected sources of interference. On urban beaches such interference is human trampling and, consequently, we evaluated its influence on the performance of burrow counts. The effects of short-term, intense human trampling on numbers and sizes of crab burrows were measured in a series of impact experiments, in which pedestrian trampling was repeatedly applied over 5 h on 4 consecutive days. Burrow counts were highly sensitive to interference from short-term trampling disturbance, which can substantially bias population estimates inferred from such counts. Importantly, burrow densities recovered overnight and apparent shifts in entrance size structures recorded immediately after the trampling impacts were also no longer evident on the following day. Thus, short-term trampling shifted parameter estimates without significant biological effects underpinning such changes—a clear case of bias. Although crab density and size structure are susceptible to artefacts caused be human trampling, they remain valuable indicators for sandy beaches, if interference by pedestrians is small in field measurements or can be accommodated in numerical analyses.

Sandy beaches comprise one of the most important coastal resources worldwide, providing habitats to threatened vertebrates, supporting underappreciated invertebrate biodiversity, and delivering crucial ecosystem services and economic benefits to mankind. Monitoring of the natural resource condition of sandy beaches and assessments of the ecological impacts of human disturbance are, however, rare on sandy shores. Because a crucial step in developing beach monitoring is to identify and test biological indicators, we evaluated the utility of using population densities of ghost crabs (genus Ocypode) to measure how beach biota respond to human pressures. Densities of crabs--estimated via burrow counts--were quantified at two sites exposed to high and low levels of human disturbance on an urban beach in eastern Australia. Human disturbance consisted of pedestrian trampling and shoreline armouring which led to the loss of dune habitat. Overall, crab numbers were halved in disturbed areas, but contrasts between impact and control sites were not necessarily consistent over time and varied between different levels of the shore: stronger and more consistent effect sizes were recorded on the upper shore than further seawards. In addition to lowering crab densities, human disturbance also caused shifts in intertidal distributions, with a greater proportion of individuals occurring lower on the shore in the impacted beach sections. The number of visible burrow openings also changed in response to weather conditions (temperature and wind). We demonstrate that spatial contrasts of burrow counts are broadly useful to indicate the existence of a human-induced disturbance effect on urban beaches; we also highlight a number of critical, hitherto unknown, issues in the application of this monitoring technique; these encompass three broad dimensions: (1) a need for standardised protocols; (2) unresolved causal links between observed patterns and putative pressures; and (3) uncertainties of how organisms responds specifically to both natural and human changes of environmental conditions on sandy shores.

Beach and coastal dune systems are increasingly subjected to a broad range of anthropogenic pressures that on many shorelines require significant conservation and mitigation interventions. But these interventions require reliable data on the severity and frequency of adverse ecological impacts. Such evidence is often obtained by measuring the response of 'indicator species'.Ghost crabs are the largest invertebrates inhabiting tropical and subtropical sandy shores and are frequently used to assess human impacts on ocean beaches. Here we present the first global meta-analysis of these impacts, and analyse the design properties and metrics of studies using ghost-crabs in their assessment. This was complemented by a gap analysis to identify thematic areas of anthropogenic pressures on sandy beach ecosystems that are under-represented in the published literature.Our meta-analysis demonstrates a broad geographic reach, encompassing studies on shores of the Pacific, Indian, and Atlantic Oceans, as well as the South China Sea. It also reveals what are, arguably, two major limitations: i) the near-universal use of proxies (i.e. burrow counts to estimate abundance) at the cost of directly measuring biological traits and bio-markers in the organism itself; and ii) descriptive or correlative study designs that rarely extend beyond a simple 'compare and contrast approach', and hence fail to identify the mechanistic cause(s) of observed contrasts.Evidence for a historically narrow range of assessed pressures (i.e., chiefly urbanisation, vehicles, beach nourishment, and recreation) is juxtaposed with rich opportunities for the broader integration of ghost crabs as a model taxon in studies of disturbance and impact assessments on ocean beaches. Tangible advances will most likely occur where ghost crabs provide foci for experiments that test specific hypotheses associated with effects of chemical, light and acoustic pollution, as well as the consequences of climate change (e.g. species range shifts).

The Blue Flag is a beach award scheme adopted by coastal municipalities to manage beaches and attract tourism. This paper evaluates beachgoers' views of the Blue Flag award in South Africa, and examines these in the light of beach managers' opinions of the award. Beachgoers (N = 374) on Blue Flag and non-Blue Flag beaches were interviewed to assess awareness, knowledge, and attitudes concerning the Blue Flag award, and perceptions of beach features that are also listed as Blue Flag criteria. Blue Flag managers were interviewed to examine their opinion of and commitment to the award. Beachgoers and managers shared positive views of the Blue Flag award. However, a substantial lack of knowledge on the award's criteria by beachgoers was reflected in managerial and educational flaws by Blue Flag managers. Based on the results obtained, a new environmental education framework is proposed for the Blue Flag award.

Ever-increasing interest in oceanography and marine biology and their relevance to global environmental issues creates a demand for authoritative reviews summarising the results of recent research. Oceanography and Marine Biology: An Annual Review has catered to this demand since its founding by the late Harold Barnes fifty years ago. Its objectives are to consider, annually, the basic areas of marine research, returning to them when appropriate in future volumes; to deal with subjects of special and topical importance; and to add new subjects as they arise. The favourable reception accorded to all the volumes shows that the series is fulfilling a very real need: reviews and sales have been gratifying. The fifty-second volume follows closely the objectives and style of the earlier volumes, continuing to regard the marine sciences—with all their various aspects—as a unity. Physical, chemical, and biological aspects of marine science are dealt with by experts actively engaged in these fields. The series is an essential reference text for researchers and students in all fields of marine science and related subjects, and it finds a place in libraries of not only marine stations and institutes, but also universities. It is consistently among the highest ranking impact factors for the marine biology category of the citation indices compiled by the Institute for Scientific Information. [Book Synopsis]

Complexity is increasingly the hallmark in environmental management practices of sandy shorelines. This arises primarily from meeting growing public demands (e.g., real estate, recreation) whilst reconciling economic demands with expectations of coastal users who have modern conservation ethics. Ideally, shoreline management is underpinned by empirical data, but selecting ecologically-meaningful metrics to accurately measure the condition of systems, and the ecological effects of human activities, is a complex task. Here we construct a framework for metric selection, considering six categories of issues that authorities commonly address: erosion; habitat loss; recreation; fishing; pollution (litter and chemical contaminants); and wildlife conservation. Possible metrics were scored in terms of their ability to reflect environmental change, and against criteria that are widely used for judging the performance of ecological indicators (i.e., sensitivity, practicability, costs, and public appeal). From this analysis, four types of broadly applicable metrics that also performed very well against the indicator criteria emerged: 1.) traits of bird populations and assemblages (e.g., abundance, diversity, distributions, habitat use); 2.) breeding/reproductive performance sensu lato (especially relevant for birds and turtles nesting on beaches and in dunes, but equally applicable to invertebrates and plants); 3.) population parameters and distributions of vertebrates associated primarily with dunes and the supralittoral beach zone (traditionally focused on birds and turtles, but expandable to mammals); 4.) compound measurements of the abundance/cover/biomass of biota (plants, invertebrates, vertebrates) at both the population and assemblage level. Local constraints (i.e., the absence of birds in highly degraded urban settings or lack of dunes on bluff-backed beaches) and particular issues may require alternatives. Metrics – if selected and applied correctly – provide empirical evidence of environmental condition and change, but often do not reflect deeper environmental values per se. Yet, values remain poorly articulated for many beach systems; this calls for a comprehensive identification of environmental values and the development of targeted programs to conserve these values on sandy shorelines globally.

Coastal dunes are increasingly at risk due to pressures deriving from global climate change, sea level rise, recreation and development. The consequences of the “coastal squeeze” in which dunes are placed, such as erosion and the loss of critical ecosystem services, are usually followed by expensive restoration and protection measures, many of which are unsuccessful. Due to the poor understanding and acknowledgement of the key attributes of coastal dunes in decision making processes, it is essential to provide scientific data on the impacts of human interference on coastal dunes so as to inform executives and guide them towards a sustainable management of the coastal zone. The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of five different levels of infrastructure development on the vegetation community structure of coastal dunes in Jeffreys Bay, South Africa. The effects of infrastructure development on dune vegetation were quantified by measuring the richness, diversity, cover, height and composition of plant species. With an increase in infrastructure development a significant decrease in dune width, average species richness and height of the plants occurred, accompanied by a shift in plant community composition. The foredunes that were backed immediately by infrastructure presented significantly greater species richness, diversity, cover and height compared with the foredunes abutted by primary dunes. This study demonstrated that coastal dunes are environments which are sensitive to varying levels of human impact. Informed and comprehensive management planning of these environments is therefore imperative for the restoration and maintenance of remnant dunes and for the conservation of undeveloped coastal dunes.