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Background: Upper limb impairments in a hemiparetic arm are clinically quantified by well-established clinical scales, known to suffer poor validity, reliability, and sensitivity. Alternatively, robotics can assess motor impairments by characterizing joint dynamics through system identification. In this study, we establish the merits of quantifying abnormal synergy, spasticity, and changes in joint viscoelasticity using system identification, evaluating (1) feasibility and quality of parametric estimates, (2) test–retest reliability, (3) differences between healthy controls and patients with upper limb impairments, and (4) construct validity. Methods: Forty-five healthy controls, twenty-nine stroke patients, and twenty cerebral palsy patients participated. Participants were seated with the affected arm immobilized in the Shoulder-Elbow-Perturbator (SEP). The SEP is a one-degree-of-freedom perturbator that enables applying torque perturbations to the elbow while providing varying amounts of weight support to the human arm. Participants performed either a ‘do not intervene’ or a resist task. Elbow joint admittance was quantified and used to extract elbow viscosity and stiffness. Fifty-four of the participants performed two sessions to establish the test–retest reliability of the parameters. Construct validity was assessed by correlating system identification parameters to parameters extracted using a SEP protocol that objectifies current clinical scales (Re-Arm protocol). Results: Feasibility was confirmed by all participants successfully completing the study protocol within ~ 25 min without reporting pain or burden. The parametric estimates were good with a variance-accounted-for of ~ 80%. A fair to excellent test–retest reliability was found (ICC= 0.46 - 0.98) for patients, except for elbow stiffness with full weight support (ICC= 0.35). Compared to healthy controls, patients had a higher elbow viscosity and stiffness during the ‘do not intervene’ task and lower, Biomechatronics & Human-Machine Control

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) over the contralateral primary motor cortex of the target muscle (conventional tDCS) has been described to enhance corticospinal excitability, as measured with transcranial magnetic stimulation. Recently, tDCS targeting the brain regions functionally connected to the contralateral primary motor cortex (motor network tDCS) was reported to enhance corticospinal excitability more than conventional tDCS. We compared the effects of motor network tDCS, 2 mA conventional tDCS, and sham tDCS on corticospinal excitability in 21 healthy participants in a randomized, single-blind within-subject study design. We applied tDCS for 12 min and measured corticospinal excitability with TMS before tDCS and at 0, 15, 30, 45, and 60 min after tDCS. Statistical analysis showed that neither motor network tDCS nor conventional tDCS significantly increased corticospinal excitability relative to sham stimulation. Furthermore, the results did not provide evidence for superiority of motor network tDCS over conventional tDCS. Motor network tDCS seems equally susceptible to the sources of intersubject and intrasubject variability previously observed in response to conventional tDCS., Biomechatronics & Human-Machine Control

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a promising tool to improve and speed up motor rehabilitation after stroke, but inconsistent clinical effects refrain tDCS from clinical implementation. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the need for individualized tDCS configurations in stroke, considering interindividual variability in brain anatomy and motor function representation. We simulated tDCS in individualized MRI-based finite element head models of 21 chronic stroke subjects and 10 healthy age-matched controls. An anatomy-based stimulation target, i.e. the motor hand knob, was identified with MRI, whereas a motor function-based stimulation target was identified with EEG. For each subject, we simulated conventional anodal tDCS electrode configurations and optimized electrode configurations to maximize stimulation strength within the anatomical and functional target. The normal component of the electric field was extracted and compared between subjects with stroke and healthy, age-matched controls, for both targets, during conventional and optimized tDCS. Electrical field strength was significantly lower, more variable and more frequently in opposite polarity for subjects with stroke compared to healthy age-matched subjects, both for the anatomical and functional target with conventional, i.e. non-individualized, electrode configurations. Optimized, i.e. individualized, electrode configurations increased the electrical field strength in the anatomical and functional target for subjects with stroke but did not reach the same levels as in healthy subjects. Considering individual brain structure and motor function is crucial for applying tDCS in subjects with stroke. Lack of individualized tDCS configurations in subjects with stroke results in lower electric fields in stimulation targets, which may partially explain the inconsistent clinical effects of tDCS in stroke trials., Biomechatronics & Human-Machine Control, Precision and Microsystems Engineering, Biomechanical Engineering

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) over the contralateral primary motor cortex of the target muscle (conventional tDCS) has been described to enhance corticospinal excitability, as measured with transcranial magnetic stimulation. Recently, tDCS targeting the brain regions functionally connected to the contralateral primary motor cortex (motor network tDCS) was reported to enhance corticospinal excitability more than conventional tDCS. We compared the effects of motor network tDCS, 2 mA conventional tDCS, and sham tDCS on corticospinal excitability in 21 healthy participants in a randomized, single-blind within-subject study design. We applied tDCS for 12 min and measured corticospinal excitability with TMS before tDCS and at 0, 15, 30, 45, and 60 min after tDCS. Statistical analysis showed that neither motor network tDCS nor conventional tDCS significantly increased corticospinal excitability relative to sham stimulation. Furthermore, the results did not provide evidence for superiority of motor network tDCS over conventional tDCS. Motor network tDCS seems equally susceptible to the sources of intersubject and intrasubject variability previously observed in response to conventional tDCS., Biomechatronics & Human-Machine Control

The inconsistent response to transcranial electric stimulation in the stroke population is attributed to, among other factors, unknown effects of stroke lesion conductivity on stimulation strength at the targeted brain areas. Volume conduction models are promising tools to determine optimal stimulation settings. However, stroke lesion conductivity is often not considered in these models as a source of inter-subject variability. The goal of this study is to propose a method that combines MRI, EEG, and transcranial stimulation to estimate the conductivity of cortical stroke lesions experimentally. In this simulation study, lesion conductivity was estimated from scalp potentials during transcranial electric stimulation in 12 chronic stroke patients. To do so, first, we determined the stimulation configuration where scalp potentials are maximally affected by the lesion. Then, we calculated scalp potentials in a model with a fixed lesion conductivity and a model with a randomly assigned conductivity. To estimate the lesion conductivity, we minimized the error between the two models by varying the conductivity in the second model. Finally, to reflect realistic experimental conditions, we test the effect rotation of measurement electrode orientation and the effect of the number of electrodes used. We found that the algorithm converged to the correct lesion conductivity value when noise on the electrode positions was absent for all lesions. Conductivity estimation error was below 5% with realistic electrode coregistration errors of 0.1° for lesions larger than 50 ml. Higher lesion conductivities and lesion volumes were associated with smaller estimation errors. In conclusion, this method can experimentally estimate stroke lesion conductivity, improving the accuracy of volume conductor models of stroke patients and potentially leading to more effective transcranial electric stimulation configurations for this population., Biomechatronics & Human-Machine Control

Neurophysiologic correlates of motor learning that can be monitored during neurorehabilitation interventions can facilitate the development of more effective learning methods. Previous studies have focused on the role of the beta band (14–30 Hz) because of its clear response during motor activity. However, it is difficult to discriminate between beta activity related to learning a movement and performing the movement. In this study, we analysed differences in the electroencephalography (EEG) power spectra of complex and simple explicit sequential motor tasks in healthy young subjects. The complex motor task (CMT) allowed EEG measurement related to motor learning. In contrast, the simple motor task (SMT) made it possible to control for EEG activity associated with performing the movement without significant motor learning. Source reconstruction of the EEG revealed task-related activity from 5 clusters covering both primary motor cortices (M1) and 3 clusters localised to different parts of the cingulate cortex (CC). We found no association between M1 beta power and learning, but the CMT produced stronger bilateral beta suppression compared to the SMT. However, there was a positive association between contralateral M1 theta (5–8 Hz) and alpha (8–12 Hz) power and motor learning, and theta and alpha power in the posterior mid-CC and posterior CC were positively associated with greater motor learning. These findings suggest that the theta and alpha bands are more related to motor learning than the beta band, which might merely relate to the level of perceived difficulty during learning., Biomechatronics & Human-Machine Control, Biomechanical Engineering

Objective. Large structural brain changes, such as chronic stroke lesions, alter the current pathways throughout the patients' head and therefore have to be taken into account when performing transcranial direct current stimulation simulations. Approach. We implement, test and distribute the first MATLAB pipeline that automatically generates realistic and individualized volume conduction head models of chronic stroke patients, by combining the already existing software SimNIBS, for the mesh generation, and lesion identification with neighborhood data analysis, for the lesion identification. To highlight the impact of our pipeline, we investigated the sensitivity of the electric field distribution to the lesion location and lesion conductivity in 16 stroke patients' datasets. Main results. Our pipeline automatically generates 1 mm-resolution tetrahedral meshes including the lesion compartment in less than three hours. Moreover, for large lesions, we found a high sensitivity of the electric field distribution to the lesion conductivity value and location. Significance. This work facilitates optimizing electrode configurations with the goal to obtain more focal brain stimulations of the target volumes in rehabilitation for chronic stroke patients., Biomechatronics & Human-Machine Control

The inconsistent response to transcranial electric stimulation in the stroke population is attributed to, among other factors, unknown effects of stroke lesion conductivity on stimulation strength at the targeted brain areas. Volume conduction models are promising tools to determine optimal stimulation settings. However, stroke lesion conductivity is often not considered in these models as a source of inter-subject variability. The goal of this study is to propose a method that combines MRI, EEG, and transcranial stimulation to estimate the conductivity of cortical stroke lesions experimentally. In this simulation study, lesion conductivity was estimated from scalp potentials during transcranial electric stimulation in 12 chronic stroke patients. To do so, first, we determined the stimulation configuration where scalp potentials are maximally affected by the lesion. Then, we calculated scalp potentials in a model with a fixed lesion conductivity and a model with a randomly assigned conductivity. To estimate the lesion conductivity, we minimized the error between the two models by varying the conductivity in the second model. Finally, to reflect realistic experimental conditions, we test the effect rotation of measurement electrode orientation and the effect of the number of electrodes used. We found that the algorithm converged to the correct lesion conductivity value when noise on the electrode positions was absent for all lesions. Conductivity estimation error was below 5% with realistic electrode coregistration errors of 0.1° for lesions larger than 50 ml. Higher lesion conductivities and lesion volumes were associated with smaller estimation errors. In conclusion, this method can experimentally estimate stroke lesion conductivity, improving the accuracy of volume conductor models of stroke patients and potentially leading to more effective transcranial electric stimulation configurations for this population., Biomechatronics & Human-Machine Control

Neurophysiologic correlates of motor learning that can be monitored during neurorehabilitation interventions can facilitate the development of more effective learning methods. Previous studies have focused on the role of the beta band (14–30 Hz) because of its clear response during motor activity. However, it is difficult to discriminate between beta activity related to learning a movement and performing the movement. In this study, we analysed differences in the electroencephalography (EEG) power spectra of complex and simple explicit sequential motor tasks in healthy young subjects. The complex motor task (CMT) allowed EEG measurement related to motor learning. In contrast, the simple motor task (SMT) made it possible to control for EEG activity associated with performing the movement without significant motor learning. Source reconstruction of the EEG revealed task-related activity from 5 clusters covering both primary motor cortices (M1) and 3 clusters localised to different parts of the cingulate cortex (CC). We found no association between M1 beta power and learning, but the CMT produced stronger bilateral beta suppression compared to the SMT. However, there was a positive association between contralateral M1 theta (5–8 Hz) and alpha (8–12 Hz) power and motor learning, and theta and alpha power in the posterior mid-CC and posterior CC were positively associated with greater motor learning. These findings suggest that the theta and alpha bands are more related to motor learning than the beta band, which might merely relate to the level of perceived difficulty during learning., Biomechatronics & Human-Machine Control, Biomechanical Engineering

Objective. Large structural brain changes, such as chronic stroke lesions, alter the current pathways throughout the patients' head and therefore have to be taken into account when performing transcranial direct current stimulation simulations. Approach. We implement, test and distribute the first MATLAB pipeline that automatically generates realistic and individualized volume conduction head models of chronic stroke patients, by combining the already existing software SimNIBS, for the mesh generation, and lesion identification with neighborhood data analysis, for the lesion identification. To highlight the impact of our pipeline, we investigated the sensitivity of the electric field distribution to the lesion location and lesion conductivity in 16 stroke patients' datasets. Main results. Our pipeline automatically generates 1 mm-resolution tetrahedral meshes including the lesion compartment in less than three hours. Moreover, for large lesions, we found a high sensitivity of the electric field distribution to the lesion conductivity value and location. Significance. This work facilitates optimizing electrode configurations with the goal to obtain more focal brain stimulations of the target volumes in rehabilitation for chronic stroke patients., Biomechatronics & Human-Machine Control