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Social aspects of second language acquisition (SLA) and the contexts in which people attempt to learn and use languages and seek to become integrated within new and changing cultures have been examined for decades from various theoretical perspectives. In this article, I present some of the ways in which 'social' experience is being theorized in SLA and in broader fields that intersect with SLA, such as linguistic anthropology. I then discuss how the Douglas Fir Group (DFG, 2016) originally portrayed the many interlinking factors affecting SLA in our multilingual world on several analytic levels and suggest ways of perhaps reconceptualizing the model while retaining its powerful heuristic value. Next, I describe language socialization research as 1 productive social approach and provide examples of research in 2 transnational domains—study abroad and heritage language learning—that demonstrate a multiscalar approach to examining social dimensions of language development and use. The article ends with a discussion of transdisciplinarity in SLA research. I suggest possibilities for team‐based research projects that aim to understand cases from multiple, integrated perspectives on different scales of analysis, and then provide a brief reflection on some of the troubling political ideologies that SLA researchers who embrace multilingualism must now confront on a daily basis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Addressing themes from the Douglas Fir Group's (2016) transdisciplinary framework, this paper bridges boundaries between cognitive and social disciplines by showing how social contextual factors can affect the psycholinguistic development of complexity, accuracy, and fluency (CAF) in learner language. Sociolinguistic and sociocultural frameworks are blended with use of a multidimensional psycholinguistic frame, CAF, to analyze speech samples produced by 10 adult learners of English across different developmental levels as they all produced narratives containing constructed dialogue. Learners enacted imagined 'voices' that were significantly more accurate and fluent compared to their narrative baseline voices. Our findings suggest that emerging L2 proficiency consists of many distinct voices that can significantly differ in accuracy of grammatical forms and fluency; related studies show they also differ in suprasegmentals, nonverbals, discourse style, and expressed social stance. Learners' ability to produce such voices in constructed dialogue supports a view of their proficiency as heteroglossic, complex, dynamic, and holistic, and of language play as facilitative of SLA. Theoretical and practical implications for L2 learning, instruction, and assessment are considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article summarizes and responds to each of the main articles in the current issue, a special issue on transdisciplinary approaches to understanding second language acquisition (SLA), which the author notes grew out of a group of SLA researchers known as the Douglas Fir Group. Topics include the relationship between cognitive and social approaches to SLA, how political changes such as rising xenophobia intersect with SLA, and the usage-based approach to language.

The article looks at transdisciplinary approaches to analyzing second language acquisition (SLA) which prioritize multilingualism and social aspects of language acquisition. The author discusses the article "SLA and the Study of Equitable Multilingualism" by Lourdes Ortega, in the current issue. Topics include the relationship between language, social action, and meaning.

Britain's already poor record for language learning might be exacerbated by the Global English phenomenon, in that utilitarian reasons for learning languages other than English are increasingly undermined (Lanvers, 2014; Lo Bianco, 2014). This article offers a state-of-the-art review of UK research on second language (L2) learning motivation and attitude. The introduction is dedicated to a review of language education policy and numerical evidence on the decline in language learning. Part I reviews UK motivational literature under the headings Primary school; Secondary school; University and beyond; Teachers, parents, milieu. The evaluation of the literature reveals some striking lacunae, as well as a misfit between common explanations of the UK's language learning crisis and the social divide between those who choose to learn languages and those who do not. A motivation-in-context understanding of UK language learning needs to account for the many contradictory Other influences impacting on learner motivation. Therefore, Part II presents a new motivational model, based on Higgins's Self-Discrepancy Theory, a model which includes multifaceted Others as well as Own selves, including that of resistance/rebellion against Others. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article explores adolescent students' attitudes toward learning English and other European languages studied at secondary school. The study is based on 2255 qualitative responses to a survey conducted in Bulgaria, Germany, the Netherlands, and Spain. The data reveal that, although differences between countries shape the experience of foreign language learning in different ways, students in all four countries are highly aware of the global status of English. This can be a positive stimulus for students' attitudes toward English but it can also negatively affect their attitudes toward learning other languages, as these can be perceived as less valuable. While perceived societal importance can differ from personal relevance and while identity issues, ability beliefs, contextual factors on the school and classroom level, as well as social-relational contexts (especially the relationship to the teacher) also play a role in shaping students' attitudes, the data demonstrate that macro-contextual factors exert considerable influence. They also suggest that more attention must be paid to stimulating positive attitudes toward language diversity and to fostering plurilingual aspirations in young Europeans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An introduction is presented which discusses the theme of the current issue, a special issue on transdisciplinary approaches and multilingualism in the study of second language acquisition (SLA). They cite specific articles in the issue on topics including social aspects of SLA, the concept of agency in SLA, and sociocultural narrative activity.

The authors discuss aspects of the changing landscape of literacy education within North America. They highlight the increase recognition of the needs of second language students associated with the rise of income inequality across the country. The authors examine the reading achievement gap in the middle school and high school students.

Although researchers often acknowledge the importance of linguistically rich interactions in the academic language development of emergent bilingual students, few studies have explicitly examined the role of linguistic peer support and the underlying structure of social relationships in the second language learning experiences and outcomes of immigrant adolescents in schooling contexts. This mixed methods study investigates the role of peers-including bilingual peers-in the development of oral academic English during adolescence. Using social network analysis, this study describes the unique contribution of peer linguistic resources to the oral Academic English Proficiency of 102 adolescent Spanish-speaking immigrant students. Findings show that having bilingual peers who collaborated on academic tasks with participants, in English or Spanish, contributed to academic English proficiency beyond individual predictors of second language acquisition (age, time in the United States, gender, and maternal education). Peer social network composition indexed the opportunities adolescent English learners encountered at school to learn and use academic English. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates willingness to communicate (WTC) and its determinants through structural equation modelling (SEM). Building on models by MacIntyre and Charos (1996) and Yashima (2002), it addresses 3 apparent gaps in the current knowledge base: It is the first SEM-based WTC study in a Western European context, investigating French as a second language in a representative sample of over 1,000 grade 12 students in Flanders, the Dutch-speaking part of Belgium; it is among the few studies that compare classroom WTC with WTC outside the classroom; and it investigates the underexplored relationship between WTC and language proficiency through extensive standardized listening tests. Among the study's findings are that classroom WTC is a strong predictor of WTC outside the classroom; however, in naturalistic settings the role of integrativeness decreases while anxiety levels play a larger role. The study provides new support for several existing suggestions for L2 pedagogy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Robinson's (2001) Cognition Hypothesis claims that more complex tasks promote interaction and language development. This study examined the effect of task complexity in the learning of request-making expressions. Task complexity was operationalized as [+/− reasoning] following Robinson's framework. The study employed a pretest-posttest research design and was conducted over 6 weeks. Korean junior high school students from 3 classes ( N = 73) were assigned to one of the following groups: simple, complex, or control. Both task groups performed a pretest, 2 collaborative tasks, and 2 posttests, whereas the control group performed the pre- and posttests only. Learners' oral interaction during tasks was audiorecorded and analyzed by the number of pragmatic-related episodes (PREs). Learners' knowledge of request expressions was measured by a discourse completion test (DCT). The results indicated that task complexity levels influenced the occurrence of PREs, but no difference was found in the quality of task outcome between the simple and complex groups. In terms of learning outcomes, both task groups outperformed the control group, but no difference was found on the immediate posttest. However, the complex group maintained its gain on the delayed posttest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As international students navigate in a foreign educational environment, having higher levels of coping or stress-resistance resources—both internal and external—could be related to increased satisfaction with personal and university life. The internal coping resources examined in this study were host language proficiency, self-esteem, intercultural social self-efficacy, and academic self-efficacy. The external resources studied were perceived social support from (a) hosts and (b) non-hosts. Survey participants were 385 Asian-born international students in Australian universities. Regression analyses revealed that academic self-efficacy and social support from hosts were significant predictors of both personal and university life satisfaction, but the effects of English language proficiency and social support from non-hosts disappeared when other resources were considered. Additional predictors of personal satisfaction were intercultural social self-efficacy and self-esteem. We discuss the implications for future research on the international student experience and for learning support provision for international university students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Miscommunications appear to offer powerful L2 learning opportunities. In particular, they often arouse emotions that facilitate event recall, and may motivate learners by providing implicit evidence of the communicative importance and personal relevance of underlying language features. This article reports on a pedagogical approach to utilizing learners' miscommunications, and illustrates how communicative problems can become the basis of effective micro-lessons that highlight the often complex ways in which elements of the language system combine to create meaning. Miscommunication also provides a suitable platform to introduce the mechanisms of repair, through which learners can better manage communicative difficulties. Suggestions are made for how to establish a miscommunication focus in lessons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the value of monocultural acculturation orientation to the host culture (assimilation) and bicultural acculturation orientation (integration) for language learning is critical in guiding educational policy and practices for immigrant students. This study aimed to enhance our understanding on the relationship between acculturation orientation and second language (L2) learning. It generated two conceptual models to describe how cultural identification affects language learning as hypothesized in different theories on identity and L2 learning and tested these two hypothesized models in the immigration context of Hong Kong. A survey was conducted among a group of senior high school South Asian minority students on their learning of the language of the host culture, Chinese, to provide the basis for comparison. It was found that the students mainly adopted the bicultural/integration orientation and that bicultural orientation was the optimal acculturation orientation for learning Chinese. Bicultural orientation influenced the participants' Chinese language learning outcome through impacting psychosocial well-being and engagement with the target language and community. The findings suggest that we need to take both linguistic and psychosocial adjustment factors into consideration when conceptualizing the role of identity in L2 learning. Furthermore, this study cautions us against a context-independent stance toward the utility of assimilation for language learning. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Individual differences have been the center of attention of a considerable number of linguists and educators for decades (see, e.g., Krashen, 1980; Skehan, 1989, 2014; Larsen-Freeman & Long, 1991; Dornyei, 2006; Robinson, 2012). This could be attributed to the hypothesis that individual differences are fundamental psychological factors which could predict success or failure of a language learner (Lightbown & Spada, 2006). Aptitude factor is one of these major and controversial individual characteristics (Brown, 2007). It is believed that language aptitude is one of the primary learner attributes noticeably involved in second language acquisition (Skehan, 1989). It is also assumed to be the most successful predictor of language learning attainment (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1992). This has been supported in a study conducted by DeKeyser, Alfi-Shabtay, and Ravid (2010) who concluded that language learning aptitude can play a fundamental role in adult second language acquisition. That could be attributed to the aptitude tests such as Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) which have been proved to have positive relation with language learning. For instance, Bain, McCallum, Bell, Cochran, and Sawyer (2010) indicated that MLAT could be "the strongest predictor of foreign language learning success" (p. 140). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Language learning is inextricably linked to a social context, and this implies that context-related social variables, such as ethnicity or attitudes, can influence how language learning unfolds. Among the many group-engendered social factors, ethnic identity appears to have interesting consequences for language teaching and learning (Pavlenko & Blackledge 2004). Indeed, issues of personal and group identity often become important when individuals or groups come in contact with one another to learn a language. Briefly, ethnic identity refers to a person's subjective experience of being a part of an ethnic group (Ashmore, Deaux & McLaughlin-Volpe 2004). For second language (L2) learners, the two relevant groups are usually their primary (home) ethnic group and the L2 community. We report here on the research that we have been conducting at Concordia University in Montreal, as part of the Centre for the Study of Learning and Performance, with the goal of investigating the role of ethnic group identity in L2 learning. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Each year more than 800 native English-speaking language assistants are brought into Madrid's bilingual/Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) primary schools to assist local teachers and promote students' foreign language and intercultural competence. In spite of these high numbers and the cost to the bilingual programme, no specific guidelines are provided by the bilingual programme administrators regarding how the assistants should collaborate with the local teachers in the classroom. This article sets out to describe how these two different groups of educators interact in the classroom, how they distribute their corresponding teaching roles, and how these roles are articulated linguistically. Drawing on three broad strands of literature, namely (a) Systemic Functional Linguistics and the distinction between instructional and regulative classroom registers, (b) Discourse Analysis and classroom discourse functions, and (c) Second Language Acquisition and interactional strategies, this study analyses team teaching situations and provides a description of the discursive practices enacted. The data suggest qualitative differences in the type of discourse produced by both sets of participants while interpretations are offered in the light of native and nonnative speaker status, novice and expert teacher profiles, and possible intercultural differences. In closing we briefly discuss some of the implications for team teaching practice in bilingual/CLIL programmes across contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the beliefs of second language learners regarding peer interaction and peer corrective feedback (CF) as well as the feasibility of a second language intervention, aimed at changing those beliefs. The classroom intervention was designed to promote collaborative learning and to train learners to provide CF to each other. Participants were university-level learners in 4 required English classes in Japan ( N = 167), each assigned to 1 of 4 treatment conditions. While all experimental classes were given peer interaction instruction, 2 classes were given CF training (prompts or recasts). Another class served as the control group. Questionnaires were administered before and after the intervention and selected learners ( n = 36) were interviewed. The quantitative (factor-analysis and matched-samples t-tests) and qualitative (grounded theory methodology) analyses revealed that, while learners held positive beliefs about peer interaction and peer CF from the onset, the intervention facilitated trust in their classmates as learning resources, and those who were given CF training displayed an increased willingness to and confidence in providing CF. Also, 2 classroom-specific variables emerged for the intervention to be effective on language development: a collaborative classroom environment and positive social relationships between learners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is a conceptual replication of Leeser and DeMil (in press) and examines the effectiveness of Processing Instruction, Traditional Instruction, and no instruction for primary and secondary effects with a primary target form (Spanish accusative clitics) and a secondary form (Spanish dative clitics) (N = 134). Leeser and DeMil (in press) failed to find gains in production similar to previous research. The present study differs in design from the original study in terms of the production measures (type and number of opportunities for production) and more closely resemble those used in previous secondary effects research. In part, the findings show that significant gains for PI were found for primary and secondary form interpretation, whereas the gains for TI were less robust. As such, we discuss the theoretical and methodological ramifications of these findings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Researchers in second language socialization (SLS) often examine those interactions relating to a learner's integration within a target community. Kramsch and Whiteside (2008) noted the importance of symbolic competence in this integration. Symbolic competence, defined as the ability to access contextually relevant social and political histories in order to "play with various linguistic codes and the various spatial and temporal resonances of these codes" (p. 664), is viewed at least partially in interaction. The current article contains an analysis of how one individual performed his own orientations of symbolic competence--what I term symbolic performance--in the context of his community of practice. Through a close discourse analysis of a conversation between Mejandro, a native speaker of Spanish, and members of his Quichua-speaking community, I highlight how certain symbols and histories were performed in what was, on the surface, a lighthearted interaction. This analysis reveals how members of the target community resisted some aspects of Alejandro's performance and examines the implications of this resistance for Mejandro's socialization into the community. The findings of this study add to a new body of literature that operationalizes and problemafizes the notion of symbolic competence in multilingual communities of practice and other SLS contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The essay discusses methods to increase student interest in French language by a graduate teacher of French, particularly focusing on empowering students of French with career options outside academia. It addresses the increasing necessity of bilingualism due to globalization, the psychological and social benefits from acquiring a second language, and the need to foster scholarship among students.

While many studies into task-based interaction have been conducted within a cognitive-linguistic perspective, few have been conducted with the aim of investigating learners' task motivation. Framed within a complex systems approach, the principle objectives of this classroom-based study were to provide a complexity description of task motivation and to identify how various socio-affective and task condition-related elements interact together to influence learner motivation during different types of tasks. The elements include task enjoyment, effort, success expectancy, relevance, emotional state, perceived difficulty, perceived group work dynamic, and specific aspects related to the structure and content of tasks. Participants for the study consisted of 38 Korean intermediate learners of English in a conversation course as part of a TESOL certificate program. Data were collected through questionnaires during the course, at pre- and post-task, and as well, through post-task interviews. Supporting the notion that task motivation functions as a complex system, learners' motivation decreased as a result of different combinations of socio-affective variables acting together rather than in isolation. Task conditions related to cognitive complexity and topic, furthermore, were shown to function as important control parameters in the shaping of the motivational patterns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses results of second language acquisition study for pre-service teachers through cultural immersion, a teaching literacy project in Costa Rica. Topics include analysis of participants on complexities of learning second language, impact of the immersion study on the participants, and assumptions on teaching English Language Learner (ELL) children.

The article discusses the importance of cultivating classroom relationships and creating a positive classroom environment, particularly focusing on student-to-student perceptions of cooperation and supportive learning. It addresses the effects of peer interactions in a second language learning context, as well as notes the positive impact of classroom connectedness.

This article presents an overview of the socio-educational model of second language acquisition, indicating how it can be traced back to theoretical perspectives originating with W.E. Lambert. The model distinguishes between the cultural and educational contexts of formal language instruction and proposes measures of individual differences related to each. A major construct of the model is integrative motivation and it is proposed that it plays a major role in many facets of second language acquisition, from the development of achievement in the language to participation in extracurricular activities that will promote language learning. Much of the research was conducted in Canada with English speaking students learning French in regular school programs but more recently it has been extended to learning English as a foreign language. Results from 12 large samples in six countries indicate substantial relationships between a measure of integrative motivation and indices of achievement in English. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Teaching foreign languages to young learners is gaining popularity all over the world and as a result the age for learning a second/foreign language is being reduced in many countries. However, the outcomes of early language teaching haven't been thoroughly investigated and the question related to why we are teaching English at younger ages is not answered adequately. The SLA research has investigated the issue of age as an outcome of L1 acquisition research. The studies related to age and the 'Critical Period Hypothesis' (CPH) were mostly conducted in the second language environments and neglected the foreign language contexts. Moreover, the results of such studies, where adults versus children; and younger children versus older children are compared, have conflicting findings. Thus, the study aims to reconsider the 'Critical Period Hypothesis' by discussing significant considerations in the literature, such as neurolinguistic, cognitive and affective arguments and studies comparing children with adults. It also aims to shed some light on current foreign language teaching practices. In addition, the implications of the CPH to teaching English to young learners will be discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents an analysis of the use of critical participatory looping (CPL) for students in second language acquisition studies. Based on a study of CPL involving member checking of interpretations, the authors believe that CPL could offer a paradigmatic shift in data analyses by giving learners the opportunity to engage in educational practices. It emphasizes that CPL is contributive in making students participate and create critical inquiries in their learning environments.

Despite widespread acknowledgement of the importance of the social dimensions of second language acquisition, there has been little research on second language (L2) use and learning in the social networks of foreign language learners. This study examines the language use of a student of Japanese in Australia in two informal conversations he had with native speakers of Japanese who were part of his social network. Utilising activity theory and a conversation analytic approach to language alternation, the analysis reveals that it is not always easy for this learner to create opportunities to use Japanese due to diverse social factors. One of the major factors is a contradiction that emerges between the socialising activity and the language learning activity in which this learner and his Japanese friends are engaged in their conversations. However, this study demonstrates that the same learner sometimes succeeds in gaining access to exposure to L2 as a speaker as well as a listener and, as a consequence, access to L2 learning opportunities. This access seems to be enabled by, amongst other things, an indication of his own strong preference for L2 and his proactive move to introduce appropriate subtopics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of new technologies as mediation tools in collaborative intercultural exchanges has been the focus of much research over the last ten years. A considerable number of authors have shown the importance that this type of projects may have in facilitating the development of intercultural competence among participants. This article describes how aspects of intercultural communicative competence can be fostered and assessed in on-line collaborative projects. In this respect, we present the findings of an on-line exchange carried out by the Department of Applied Languages at Nebrija University in Madrid and Dublin City University during one semester of the academic year 2006-2007. Students collaborated electronically by e-mail and exchanged personal, linguistic and socio-cultural information. Data was gathered from a triangulation of instruments, such as e-mail content, language learning diaries, critical incidents, essays, compositions and self-evaluation questionnaires. Our findings seem to suggest that the instruments mentioned above can help us to describe some evidence of development of intercultural competence as presented in Byram's model (1997; 2000). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The debate over authenticity is a longstanding one in the teaching of English to speakers of other languages. This article revisits that debate in the context of linguistic-minority adults who, in the process of migration, experience a loss of independence and cultural capital (Bourdieu, 1986/2004). Adult migrants must develop authentic voices in their new second language both for social and interpersonal encounters and in bureaucratic and institutional settings such as job interviews and medical consultations. These needs are not adequately met by invented or oversimplified functional materials which flatten out interactional complexity. Rather, materials should be research based so that they exemplify the social relations and discourse routines of everyday and institutional interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background/Context: The analysis contained in this article was commissioned by the Social Science Research Council's Transitions to College project. Although the historical context and contemporary issues associated with English learners (ELs) and undocumented immigrant students are in many ways distinct, the project team strongly believed that the college transition issues affecting these populations were increasingly salient in light of their rapid and continued growth throughout the United States. Purpose/Objective/Research Questions/Focus of Study: The research questions guiding this analysis are: (1) What do we know and what do we need to know about the transition to college of EL and undocumented immigrant students? and (2) What are the resource and policy implications associated with the transition to college of these students? The chief purpose of this analysis is to synthesize the current research and thinking about the transitions to college of EL and undocumented immigrant students and to use the findings to develop a research agenda focused on emergent critical issues. The intent is to educate a research audience that is largely unfamiliar with the experiences of these unique populations and to inform future research directions. Research Design: The analysis is situated within the broader context of immigrant educational attainment and integration in the United States. The two student populations are distinguished to delineate the particular college transition experiences of ELs versus undocumented students, while recognizing the overlaps that do exist. Thus, for each student population, the analysis synthesizes current literature and provides discussions of (a) student demographics for states and the United States, (b) student-level issues and factors, (c) K-12 issues and factors, (d) student agency, (e) postsecondary issues and factors, and 09 summary of critical challenges, barriers, and accomplishments relative to the college transition. The final element is a recommended research agenda developed from the issues revealed in this analysis. Findings/Results: There is continued growth in the presence of EL and undocumented students, and this growth affects states with longstanding histories of immigrant presence, as well as states that have only recently had notable increases in these populations. Important to understanding the needs and potential of these two groups is that not all EL and undocumented students are new immigrants. Rather, many have only experienced education in the United States, having been born here or having arrived at a very young age with their families. From this analysis, it appears that English proficiency is as much a gatekeeping factor as it is a facilitative factor for EL and undocumented students in their successful college transitions. Unfortunately, because of the impact of poverty on these populations, the financial constraints of transitioning to college further compound the challenges already faced with regard to acquiring English and advanced subject matter proficiency. Two additional findings help to frame the college transition challenges of both EL and undocumented student populations: (i) There is a chasm between research-based best practices and the available human and material resources allocated in schools and colleges to support this objective, and (2) the role of the community college system is salient as a potential facilitative context, but one that is currently overburdened with multiple demands and shrinking resources. Conclusions/Recommendations: The article presents an eight-point research agenda that addresses the challenges surfaced in the analysis. The points cover K-12 education, evaluations of the impact of legislation and programs, and postsecondary education, with the aim of improving the overall responsiveness of our educational institutions to the needs and strengths of our EL and undocumented student populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines whether orthographic processing transfers across languages to reading when the writing systems under acquisition are sufficiently related. We conducted a study with 76 7-year-old English-first-language children in French immersion. Measures of English and French orthographic processing (orthographic choice tasks) and standardised measures of English and French word reading (Woodcock and FIAT) were taken, in addition to verbal and nonverbal ability, and phonological and morphological awareness. Analyses reveal significant contributions of orthographic processing to reading both within and across the two languages, despite the inclusion of control variables. Findings of the transfer of orthographic processing skills to reading across languages suggest that orthographic processing may not be as language specific as previously hypothesised. We discuss the several similarities between English and French, such as a shared alphabet and cognates, that may drive transfer across languages in the context of current theories of second-language reading development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper looks at the acquisition of articles and related nominal functional properties (the status of classifier, the singular-plural distinction) in English and French by native speakers of Hong Kong Cantonese. Two experimental studies are reported. In the generative SLA literature, there is disagreement as to which properties of the grammar will transfer from the first language (L1) at early stages of L2 acquisition and what the path of subsequent development might look like. We present L1 Cantonese-L2 English as well as L1 Cantonese-L2 English-L3 French data collected from learners of different proficiency levels on a variety of experimental tasks to shed light on these debates. Our findings largely support Full Transfer Full Access, a position that posits strong transfer and no impairment in SLA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article focuses on one of the problems faced by one Pacific rim country, Taiwan, in coming to terms with the increasing globalization of English, that is, the production of textbooks that are appropriate for young learners. Increasing pressure to ensure that its citizens achieve a high level of proficiency in English has led Taiwan, in common with many other countries, to reduce the age at which children are introduced to English in schools. This has lead to the proliferation of English textbooks for young learners. The Taiwan national English curriculum guidelines recommend that teaching materials should cultivate communicative ability and should include varied activities, a range of different types of text, and interesting, practical and lively topics and themes. Three textbook series produced in Taiwan are analyzed and discussed here in terms of a range of effectiveness criteria. It is concluded that the textbook writers have not yet come to terms with the recommendations in the English curriculum guidelines. In that these recommendations are similar to recommendations included in national curriculum guidelines for the teaching of languages in many other parts of the world, it is suggested that language teaching materials produced elsewhere might usefully be analyzed in a similar way. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The chapter examines the foundation and development for the nature and main concerns of validity theory for language testing. Various theories are considered, including the influential foundation provided by Samuel Messick. Shortcomings of validity theory are also pointed out. Only in recent times have language testers began to develop ways of thinking about the social dimensions of using tests. Many of these issues remain unresolved. The author suggests that the theory continues to perpetuate the individualist and cognitively oriented field of psychology.

The chapter examines the testing of social aspects of language competence. The argument presented is that, due to the individualist and cognitive bias of psychometrics, difficulties remain in measuring the social dimension of language use. According to the authors, this problem has been known from the beginning. In support of this, it is demonstrated that pragmatic tests are rarely used even though they are the subject of much theoretical discussion. The oral tests which are used are not given much reflection. Findings in research show that performance is inherently social and co-constructed rather than individualistic.

The chapter considers ways in which traditional psychometric testing has dealt with aspects of the social context of assessment. According to this tradition, the focus was upon social fairness and avoiding racial and ethnic biases. Research looked for cultural differences that would affect certain functions among different groups. A variety of statistical techniques were used to detect differential item functioning. These techniques are described and their strengths and weaknesses are considered.

The national demographic transformation that has become more evident in the last decade was easily foreseen at least 10 years ago. Our future student growth is as predictable: In a mere 35 years, White students will be a minority in every category of public education as we know it today, and non-English-proficient students will grow significantly. Unfortunately, these emerging majority ethnic and racial background students continue to be “at risk” in today's social institutions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The authors argue that English language learner (ELL) language assessment policy and poor language tests partly account for ELLs' disproportionate representation in special education. Previous research indicates that many states routinely assess ELLs' first language (L1) at initial enrollment and that ELLs identified as limited in both languages have relatively high rates of identification in special education. Two common tests, the Language Assessment Scales–Oral (LAS–O) Español and the Idea Proficiency Test I–Oral (IPT) Spanish, are shown to identify 74% and 90%, respectively, Spanish-background ELLs ( N=145) as limited L1 students, whereas a natural language measure found only 2% of participants to have unexpectedly high morphological error rates. Correlations are provided. The authors recommend changes in language testing policies and practices for ELLs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]