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Robert M. Sellers, PhD, most known for his influential and highly cited Multidimensional Model of Racial Identity (MMRI), is one of the most prolific and foundational Black scholars in psychology. From racial identity theory development and measurement to conceptual and methodological innovations in studying the lived experiences of Black people, Sellers' scholarship centers on the lives of Black communities. Sellers' mentorship and contributions to the professional development of scholars and professionals of color have supported and catalyzed new intergenerational knowledge building by these scholars, ensuring a perpetuating and far-reaching legacy in psychology. In this article, we: (a) celebrate Sellers' enduring contribution to the racial identity literature and its profound impact on psychology as a discipline as well as numerous subfields of psychology, (b) outline his contributions to the racial socialization literature, (c) describe methodological innovations in racial identity and racial socialization research advanced through his scholarship, and (d) summarize his contributions in professional development and mentorship and his leadership roles. Sellers' scholarly contributions and mentorship have transformed the discipline of psychology and the social sciences broadly speaking, making him one of the most influential psychologists in the modern era. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

This exploratory study examined the relation between pubertal timing and dimensions of ethnic-racial identity among adopted Korean Americans raised transracially in White families. The study also examined whether internalized racism moderated the association between pubertal timing and ethnic-racial identity. Adopted Korean American adolescents (N = 202; 108 females; ages 13-19 years) completed measures of pubertal development, ethnic-racial identity, and internalized racism in 2007. There was no significant main effect of pubertal timing for either male or female adolescents. Internalized racism moderated the relation between pubertal timing and ethnic-racial identity clarity (B = -.16, p = .015) among male adolescents. Specifically, earlier pubertal timing was significantly associated with lower ethnic-racial identity clarity for male adolescents with higher levels of internalized racism., (© 2023 The Authors. Child Development published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of Society for Research in Child Development.)

This article examines the origin and scholarly impact of Dr. Margaret Beale Spencer's phenomenological variant of ecological systems theory (PVEST). We expound on her early foundational work replicating the Clark and Clark (1950) doll study and research during the period of "Atlanta's missing and murdered children." As a conceptual template, we anchor the theoretical contribution as introducing phenomenology and "net vulnerability" as factors that inform "emerging identities." Highlighted research focuses on synergistic themes associated with identity intersectionality, pubertal development, and education as a context for net vulnerability. We end with suggestions for future directions for PVEST. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Despite a robust volume of evidence documenting adverse effects of racial discrimination experiences on adolescent adjustment outcomes, relatively little is known about the relational consequences of racial discrimination experiences for adolescent friendship networks. To address this gap, this study examines how racial discrimination experiences shape and are shaped by friendship network dynamics in early and middle adolescence. The current study's goals were to explicate whether relational consequences of racial discrimination experiences for friendship network selection differed between interracial and intraracial friendships among Black and Latinx youth, and how these adolescents were influenced by their friends' racial discrimination experiences. Longitudinal social network analysis was used among a sample of predominantly Latinx and Black middle school students from the southwestern U.S. (n = 1034; 50.1% boys, Mage = 12.1, 13.8% White, 18.6% Black, 53.1% Latinx, 14.4% Other race and multiracial). The results showed that Black and Latinx youth preferred intraracial friends. Above and beyond that, Black youth were more likely to have intraracial friendships when the focal individual reported lower levels of general racial discrimination experiences and higher levels of adult-perpetrated racial discrimination experiences. Black and Latinx adolescents reported increases in general racial discrimination experiences over time, as a function of their friends reporting higher levels of racial discrimination (e.g., peer influence). These findings advance developmental research by showing that racial discrimination experiences are consequential for friendship network dynamics by increasing the likelihood of intraracial friend selection among Black youth and through peer influence processes., (© 2023. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature.)

College is a context in which Black adults are at heightened risk for substance use behaviors and subsequently more harmful consequences. Increasingly, scholars are recognizing that to better understand shifts in patterns of substance use behaviors and health disparities among Black adults, mental health and racism are important factors to consider. Racism is multidimensional; thus, research is needed to investigate its multiple forms. Currently, it is unknown how the occurrence of depressive symptoms and various racism experiences influence patterns of substance use behaviors among Black college students. Further, while school belonging is evidenced to promote better health outcomes during adolescence, research is needed to understand school belonging in relation to substance use among Black college students. Using latent profile analysis (LPA), we identify patterns of substance use behaviors among Black college students ( N  = 152) and examine whether depressive symptoms, racism experiences (i.e., racial discrimination stress, internalized racism, negative police encounters), and school belonging are associated with the unique patterns. Latent profiles included indicators of substance use behavior frequency. Four patterns emerged: 1) low substance use, 2) predominant alcohol use, 3) co-use, 4) high polysubstance use. Depressive symptoms, internalized racism, and negative police encounters were significant correlates of patterns of substance use behaviors. School belonging, specifically, participation in student, cultural, spiritual, and Greek organizations, was also associated with profile membership. Findings suggest a need to integrate a broader understanding of how mental health and racism impacts the lives of Black college students, in addition to processes for supporting school belonging.

Objective: Previous empirical research on pubertal development among Black boys is limited. The present study examined the ethnic-racial composition of neighborhoods as a moderator in the relation between pubertal indicators and depressive symptoms among a nationally representative sample of African American and Caribbean Black boys., Method: The present study utilized the male sample ( N = 559) from the National Survey of American Life Adolescent sample (Jackson et al., 2004). The sample consists of 395 African American and 164 Caribbean Black boys ages 13-17 years who completed measures of relative pubertal timing, voice changes, pubic hair growth, and depressive symptoms., Results: The results indicate that Black boys with early developing hair growth who lived in neighborhoods with higher percentages of Black residents had higher depressive symptoms compared to their early developing counterparts in neighborhoods with fewer Black residents. African American males with early developing hair growth had higher depressive symptoms compared to Caribbean Black males with early developing hair growth regardless of neighborhood context., Conclusion: Early pubertal timing is a risk for African American boys' mental health regardless of neighborhood context. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Racism is as ubiquitous as the air we breathe and the water we drink. This special section highlights burgeoning research examining White youth's development in a racist society. This research is urgent given the current political context in the United States. Although promising, developmental science needs to catch up with the groundbreaking research being conducted on Whiteness in other disciplines. Developmental science requires a conceptual reset with the utilization of theories that center racism in youth development acknowledging the privileged status of Whiteness. Developmental science should acknowledge that racism is a universal influence for all youth's development, including White youth., (© 2022 Society for Research on Adolescence.)

The present study addressed gaps in puberty and weathering research by examining the relation between peer racial discrimination, pubertal timing, internalizing and externalizing symptoms, and neighborhood context among a longitudinal sample of U.S. Mexican boys. Using three waves of data ( N = 383; mean ages: 10.3-15.8 years), we examined the weathering hypothesis: Whether peer racial discrimination experiences in late childhood predicted earlier pubertal timing in adolescence and subsequent mental health problems. We also examined whether variability in youths' neighborhood contexts qualified these associations. Consistent with the weathering hypothesis, exposure to peer racial discrimination in 5th grade, predicated earlier pubertal timing in the 7th grade, which, in turn, predicted increases in internalizing symptoms in the 10th grade. However, this pattern only applied to boys residing in neighborhoods with higher levels of Latinx concentration in 5th grade. Additionally, early timing in the 7th grade predicted increases in externalizing symptoms, but this association was significant only when boys lived in neighborhoods that were lower on Latinx concentration. There was evidence of weathering in context with specific implications for internalizing symptoms, and that neighborhood Latinx concentration was both inhibiting and promoting at unique places in the hypothesized model. The findings advance existing understandings of weathering patterns and individual variation in pubertal timing among U.S. Mexican boys. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

This paper developed and validated a new measure of support for the Black Lives Matter (BLM) movement among a racially-ethnically diverse sample of college students. The measure focuses on the movement's principles of Black liberation, intersectionality, and alliance building. Participants included 1934 college students (75% female) from a large public Southwestern university. The factor structure was supported by exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, resulting in an 18-item measure, Support for Black Lives Matter, with two underlying factors. Black Liberation includes 12 items representing support for BLM because of awareness of and challenging structural inequality and racism experienced by Black individuals. Intersectional Values includes six items representing support for BLM because it embraces and affirms marginalized populations within the Black community, especially disabled Blacks, queer Blacks, Black women, and Black families with children. Evidence of criterion-related validity was demonstrated with racial group differences in support of BLM factors. Evidence of convergent validity was supported by significant positive correlations between support for BLM factors and critical consciousness (including awareness of racism, classism, and heterosexism), and negative correlations between support for BLM factors and subtle racist attitudes toward Blacks. Measurement invariance was evident between White, Black, Asian American, Latinx, and Multiracial participants. Implications and suggestions for use of the new measure are discussed., (© 2021 Society for Community Research and Action.)

Background: Racial discrimination is prevalent among Black Americans, and may increase risk for alcohol use and related problems. Understanding the mediating and moderating factors in the pathways linking racial discrimination to alcohol use outcomes is important for prevention and intervention efforts. We tested depressive symptoms as a mediator and ethnic-racial identity as a moderator in the relation between racial discrimination and alcohol use outcomes among Black American young adults., Methods: We used data from 2 independent samples of Black American young adults recruited from different regions in the United States. The first sample included 383 Black American young adults ( M age = 20.65, SD = 2.28; 81% female), and the second sample included 165 Black American young adults ( M age = 21.56, SD = 4.92; 75% female)., Results: Racial discrimination was associated with alcohol consumption and problems indirectly via depressive symptoms across the 2 independent samples. Moderation was evident for one sample such that high private regard levels buffered the association between racial discrimination and alcohol consumption, whereas high public regard levels exacerbated the association between racial discrimination and depressive symptoms., Conclusions: Racial discrimination experiences put Black American young adults at risk for alcohol use and related problems through increased depressive symptoms. Ethnic-racial identity may buffer or exacerbate these associations depending on the specific dimension. The findings imply the need to target depressive symptoms and alcohol use simultaneously to promote health and well-being among Black Americans. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Objectives: The objective of the present study was to examine longitudinal relations between adolescents' reports of offline (i.e., in-person) ethnic-racial discrimination and adolescents' reports of online ethnic-racial discrimination., Method: The study was conducted among a sample of 570 African American and Latinx adolescents (58% female; 10-18 years) over three waves of assessments occurring at yearly intervals. Autoregressive cross-lagged analyses examined potential bidirectional relations of offline ethnic-racial discrimination and online ethnic-racial discrimination., Results: Results indicated that adolescents' more frequent experiences of offline ethnic-racial discrimination predicted more frequent experiences of online ethnic-racial discrimination across time, but that the opposite direction was not supported., Conclusions: Findings may be used to redefine current theoretical frameworks that assert the bidirectional nature of online and offline experiences, particularly in the domain of ethnic-racial discrimination. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Neighborhood social processes may have important implications for parenting processes and ethnic-racial identity (ERI) processes and content in adolescence. Past research suggests that adolescents whose parents engaged in more cultural socialization, an important aspect of parental racial socialization, had higher levels of ERI processes and content. Parenting, however, is also situated within neighborhood contexts and can be influenced by resources available in neighborhoods. For example, having neighbors who share mutual values, trust one another, and appreciate/celebrate one's heritage culture may be a resource that promotes parents' efforts to engage in cultural socialization. We prospectively examined (from x¯age = 10.9-15.8 years) a model in which U.S. Mexican parents' perceptions of neighborhood social and cultural cohesion supported parents' engagement in higher levels of cultural socialization and in turn promoted adolescents' ethnic-racial identity processes and content. We tested a longitudinal mediation model with a sample of 749 U.S. Mexican adolescents (30% Mexico born; 48.9% female) and their parents. Mother-adolescent models suggest mothers' perception of neighborhood social and cultural cohesion in late childhood promoted middle adolescents' ERI affirmation via intermediate increases in maternal cultural socialization. Similar patterns were observed for ERI resolution, but only for adolescents whose mothers were born in the United States. We did not find evidence for mediation in the father-adolescent models. Findings are discussed in the context of the promoting nature of socially and culturally supportive neighborhood environments for U.S. Mexican families and adolescents. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Objectives: The present study examined the daily relation between racial discrimination experiences and diurnal cortisol patterns among a sample of Black American adults. The daily diary approach afforded the chance to examine how within-person fluctuations in racial discrimination experiences related to same- and next-day changes in cortisol patterns. The use of a lagged approach examines whether exposure to racial discrimination results in diminished outcomes. It was expected that healthy levels of ethnic-racial identity would moderate the relation between racial discrimination and cortisol parameters., Method: The participants included 93 Black adults (e.g., 20 males and 73 females) who ranged in age from 17 to 56 years old. Participants completed measures of racial discrimination and ethnic-racial identity, and provided 9 saliva samples., Results: The results indicate that on days when individuals reported increased racial discrimination experiences, they exhibited higher cortisol levels at bedtime and greater overall cortisol output that same day. Lagged analyses revealed that on days when participants reported increased racial discrimination experiences, they exhibited less pronounced cortisol awakening responses and steeper diurnal cortisol slopes the next day. These associations were moderated by high racial centrality levels, high private regard levels, and low public regard levels., Conclusions: Same-day racial discrimination experiences related to compromised diurnal cortisol patterns. The effects of racial discrimination experiences on next-day physiological functioning largely depended on ethnic-racial identity dimensions, and afforded individuals the ability to recover. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Objective: The current study examined whether knowledge, understanding and support of the Black Lives Matter movement were positively linked to self-reported physical health among a representative sample of Black American adults., Methods: The 2016 Collaborative Multiracial Post-election Survey (CMPS) examined attitudes about the 2016 US election, immigration, policing, racial equality, and racial discrimination among Asian American, Black American, Latinx, and White adults. The current study used the Black American sample, which included 3102 individuals (69% female) older than 18 years of age. We used a set of logistic regression models to assess the associations of knowledge, support, and understanding of Black Lives Matter with overall physical health., Results: Although knowledge of Black Lives Matter was not a significant predictor for physical health, understanding and supporting Black Lives Matter significantly predicted positive physical health among Black American adults., Conclusions: Black American adults who understand and support Black Lives Matter reported more positive overall physical health.

Research on pubertal development among Black boys is limited. Addressing this gap, we examined associations between three pubertal domains (e.g., voice change, hair growth, and perceived relative timing), depressive symptoms, self-esteem, and self-efficacy, among a nationally representative sample of 395 African American and 164 Caribbean Black boys (M age  = 15 years). Moderation by ethnic-racial identity (e.g., racial centrality, racial regard) was also explored. Results indicated that for both ethnic subgroups early voice change increased self-esteem; whereas early voice change increased depressive symptoms among boys who felt society views Blacks more negatively. Buffering effects of ethnic-racial identity also varied significantly between the two groups. Findings suggest that the meaning Black boys ascribe to their ethnic-racial group may explain puberty-linked outcomes., (© 2020 Society for Research in Child Development.)

Objectives: The present study used a nationally representative sample of African American and Caribbean Black adolescents to examine whether relative pubertal timing moderated the relation between general and racial discrimination experiences and self-esteem. It was anticipated that discrimination experiences would be more harmful for early maturing African American and Caribbean Black girls and boys compared to their on-time and late counterparts., Method: The participants included 1170 youth (e.g., 563 males and 607 females) from the National Survey of American Life-Adolescent (NSAL-A) who ranged in age from 13 to 17. Youth completed self-report measures of pubertal development, general and racial discrimination experiences, and self-esteem., Results: Moderation was evident such that African American and Caribbean Black girls who perceived their pubertal development as early relative to their same-age and same-sex peers exhibited higher self-esteem than African American and Caribbean Black girls who perceived their development as late at high levels of general discrimination experiences. Moderation was not evident for racial discrimination experiences among African American and Caribbean Black girls, nor was it evident for general and racial discrimination experiences among African American and Caribbean Black males., Conclusions: The findings suggest that relative pubertal timing operates as a potential moderator for general discrimination experiences among African American and Caribbean Black girls. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

This study used a nationally representative sample of African American and Caribbean Black adolescent females to examine the relation between perceived pubertal timing relative to peers and discriminatory experiences. Participants included the 607 girls who participated in the National Survey of American Life-Adolescent (NSAL-A), and ranged in age from 13 to 17. Most African American girls perceived their development as on-time relative to their same-aged peers; whereas the majority of Caribbean Black girls perceived their development as earlier than their same-aged peers. The results indicated that girls who perceived that their pubertal development was earlier than their same-aged peers reported more general and racial discrimination experiences., (© 2019 Society for Research in Child Development.)

The present study examined daily ethnic/racial identity as a moderator for racial discrimination. The idiographic approach was used to understand when Black youth are at risk for negative outcomes in the context of racial discrimination. The current study assessed if within-person changes in racial centrality, private regard, and public regard moderated the daily relation between racial discrimination and depressive symptoms. Daily measures of racial discrimination, ethnic/racial identity, and depressive symptoms were administered to a sample of 103 Black adolescents for 2 weeks. The results suggest that neither racial centrality nor private regard moderated the same-day or lagged associations between daily racial discrimination experiences and daily depressive symptoms. Although low public regard fluctuations evidenced no moderation for the within-day relation, low public regard fluctuations exacerbated the lagged day relation between daily racial discrimination experiences and daily depressive symptoms. When Black youth experienced lower levels of public regard compared to their average levels, previous-day racial discrimination experiences were associated with an increase in depressive symptoms. The results are discussed in the context of within-person changes in ethnic/racial identity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

This study employed an exploratory sequential mixed-methods design to examine the intersection of race and gender among Black American adolescents, aged 11-19. The quantitative component (n = 344) used survey data to examine gender differences in peer-perpetrated and adult-perpetrated racial discrimination experiences, and no gender differences were evident. Qualitative data (n = 42) probed how males and females interpret discrimination experiences given the intersection of race and gender. Although the majority of participants believed that Black males and females have similar experiences, some believed that Black males face more racial discrimination. However, analyses revealed social disadvantages for Black females given that they report inappropriate comments and unwelcome hair touching and limited opportunities for interracial dating compared with Black males., (© 2018 Society for Research in Child Development.)

In 1996, Cynthia García Coll and colleagues introduced a groundbreaking model that articulated factors that influenced the development of ethnic-racial minority and immigrant youth. One of the key arguments was that racial discrimination is a stratification mechanism resulting in negative developmental outcomes for minority youth, and this argument has been supported by several meta-analyses. Against the backdrop of the rise of White nationalism, increasing hate crimes against ethnic-racial minority individuals, implementation of national policies that disproportionately affect communities of color, and the shift to a majority-minority country, it is imperative for future research to refine key aspects of the integrative model that are intricately connected to these trends. The present article offers recommendations for future research in 4 areas: (1) expansion of segregation indicators to include mass incarceration and mass deportation, (2) expansion of the study of resilience factors among minority youth, (3) application of the integrative model to White youth, and (4) the development of comprehensive measures and utilization of diverse methodologies. It is imperative that future research clarify these issues to further understanding of the development of all children in the context of racial discrimination. (PsycINFO Database Record, ((c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).)

Objectives: This study bridges the empirical research on pubertal timing effects, racial identity, and school and neighborhood context to understand the pubertal development and depression link among Black adolescent females. We examined whether racial identity content dimensions moderated the relation between pubertal timing and depressive symptoms among Black adolescent females and the moderating capacity of school and neighborhood racial composition., Method: We administered measures of pubertal development, racial identity, and depressive symptoms to a sample of 217 Black adolescent females, aged 14 to 18. We assessed racial centrality, private regard, and public regard and used archival data to obtain the racial composition of participants' neighborhoods and schools., Results: The results indicated that high racial centrality levels were linked to depressive symptoms for adolescent girls with late pubertal timing relative to their early counterparts, which was stronger for girls attending not majority Black schools. The results also indicated that low public regard levels were linked to depressive symptoms among adolescent girls with early pubertal timing relative to their late counterparts, which was stronger for girls attending not majority Black schools., Conclusions: The current study provides evidence that racial identity and school racial context moderate the effects of pubertal timing differentially for early and late maturing Black girls. The results support the notion that the psychological effects of pubertal timing on internalizing symptoms are context dependent. (PsycINFO Database Record, ((c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).)

The developmental significance of youths' racial identities during adolescence is well established. It is less clear how puberty, a normative process, influences the relationship between racial identity and adjustment outcomes during adolescence. This study examined whether puberty moderates the relationship between racial identity dimensions and internalizing and externalizing outcomes, and whether the effects of puberty and racial identity on internalizing and externalizing outcomes vary by child sex. Data are drawn from African American families (N = 176; 48% female) who participated in Waves 4 and 5 of Phase III of the NICHD SECCYD. Results indicated that fifth-grade boys who felt more positively about being African American and were less advanced in their pubertal development evidenced less internalizing problems 1 year later, after adjusting for previous internalizing levels; however, for boys further in their pubertal development, having higher private regard was associated with more, rather than less, internalizing problems. Additionally, fifth-grade boys and girls who were less advanced in their pubertal development and believed that society views African Americans in a more positive light (higher public regard levels) engaged in more externalizing behaviors 1 year later, after adjusting for previous externalizing levels. Findings offer new insights into the independent and synergistic linkages between racial identity and pubertal development in their relation to internalizing and externalizing outcomes among African American youth. (PsycINFO Database Record, ((c) 2017 APA, all rights reserved).)

This manuscript introduces the special section, Context and Ethnic/Racial Identity., (© 2017 The Authors. Child Development © 2017 Society for Research in Child Development, Inc.)

Racial discrimination is conceptualized as a psychosocial stressor that has negative implications for mental health. However, factors related to racial identity may influence whether negative experiences are interpreted as instances of racial discrimination and subsequently reported as such in survey instruments, particularly given the ambiguous nature of contemporary racism. Along these lines, dimensions of racial identity may moderate associations between racial discrimination and mental health outcomes. This study examined relationships between racial discrimination, racial identity, implicit racial bias, and depressive symptoms among African American men between 30 and 50 years of age ( n = 95). Higher racial centrality was associated with greater reports of racial discrimination, while greater implicit anti-Black bias was associated with lower reports of racial discrimination. In models predicting elevated depressive symptoms, holding greater implicit anti-Black bias in tandem with reporting lower racial discrimination was associated with the highest risk. Results suggest that unconscious as well as conscious processes related to racial identity are important to consider in measuring racial discrimination, and should be integrated in studies of racial discrimination and mental health., Competing Interests: Declaration of Conflicting Interests The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

This study examined how youth's neighborhood characteristics informed their expectations of racial discrimination concurrently and longitudinally. Secondary analyses were conducted on data from Waves 1, 3, 4, 5, and 6 of the Maryland Adolescent Development in Context Study, which permitted the examination of neighborhood influences among a socioeconomically diverse sample of African American parents and adolescents (n = 863; Mage  = 12.29). Youth exposed to more neighborhood disadvantage in seventh grade reported more negative concurrent neighborhood perceptions, which, in turn, predicted greater expectations of racial discrimination in eighth grade; youth's expectations remained stable into adulthood. Thus, support was found for the mediating role of youth's subjective neighborhood perceptions in the longitudinal relation between neighborhood structure and expectations of racial discrimination., (© 2016 The Authors. Child Development © 2016 Society for Research in Child Development, Inc.)

This study examined a moderated mediation model among 314 Black adolescents aged 13-18. The model included general coping strategies (e.g., active, distracting, avoidant, and support-seeking strategies) as mediators and racial identity dimensions (racial centrality, private regard, public regard, minority, assimilationist, and humanist ideologies) as moderators of the relation between perceived racial discrimination and depressive symptoms. Moderated mediation examined if the relation between perceived racial discrimination and depressive symptoms varied by the mediators and moderators. Results revealed that avoidant coping strategies mediated the relation between perceptions of racial discrimination and depressive symptoms. The results indicated that avoidant coping strategies mediated the relation between perceived racial discrimination and depressive symptoms among youth with high levels of the minority/oppressive ideology., (© 2013 The Authors. Child Development © 2013 Society for Research in Child Development, Inc.)

The study presented here examined school context as a moderator in the relation between daily perceptions of racial discrimination and depressive symptoms. The sample included 75 Black adolescents who completed daily surveys for 14 days. The results indicated that approximately 97% of adolescents reported experiencing at least one discriminatory experience over the 2-week period. During the daily diary period, the 2-week average was 26 discriminatory experiences with a daily average of 2.5 discriminatory events. The results indicated perceptions of racial discrimination were linked to increased depressive symptoms on the following day. This relation was apparent for Black youth attending predominantly Black and White high schools, but not for Black youth attending schools with no clear racial majority.

The construction of an ethnic or racial identity is considered an important developmental milestone for youth of color. This review summarizes research on links between ethnic and racial identity (ERI) with psychosocial, academic, and health risk outcomes among ethnic minority adolescents. With notable exceptions, aspects of ERI are generally associated with adaptive outcomes. ERI are generally beneficial for African American adolescents' adjustment across all three domains, whereas the evidence is somewhat mixed for Latino and American Indian youth. There is a dearth of research for academic and health risk outcomes among Asian American and Pacific Islander adolescents. The review concludes with suggestions for future research on ERI among minority youth., (© 2013 The Authors. Child Development © 2013 Society for Research in Child Development, Inc.)

Perceptions of racial discrimination constitute significant risks to the psychological adjustment of minority youth. The present study examined the relationship between perceived racial discrimination and peer nominations of victimization among 173 (55 % female) African American, European American and Latino youth. All respondents completed peer nominations of victimization status whereas the African American and Latino youth completed subjective measures of racial discrimination. The results indicated that African American and Latino's subjective perceptions of racial discrimination were linked to nominations of overt and relational victimization when rated by their European American peers. The results suggest that there is consistency between African American and Latino youth's perceptions of racial discrimination and nominations of peer victimization by their European American peers.

The present study examined perceptions of racial discrimination and racial socialization on racial identity development among 566 African American adolescents over 3 years. Latent class analyses were used to estimate identity statuses (Diffuse, Foreclosed, Moratorium, and Achieved). The probabilities of transitioning from one stage to another were examined with latent transition analyses to determine the likelihood of youth progressing, regressing, or remaining constant. Racial socialization and perceptions of racial discrimination were examined as covariates to assess the association with changes in racial identity status. The results indicated that perceptions of racial discrimination were not linked to any changes in racial identity. Youth who reported higher levels of racial socialization were less likely to be in Diffuse or Foreclosed compared with the Achieved group., (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved.)

This study examined the influence of racial identity in the longitudinal relation between perceptions of racial discrimination and psychological well-being for approximately 560 African American youth. Latent curve modeling (LCM) and parallel process multiple-indicator LCMs with latent moderators were used to assess whether perceptions of racial discrimination predicted the intercept (initial levels) and the slope (rate of change) of psychological well-being over time, and whether racial identity moderates these relations. The results indicated that African American adolescents who reported higher psychological responses to discrimination frequency levels at the first time point had lower initial levels of well-being. Regressing the slope factor for psychological well-being on the frequency of discrimination also revealed a nonsignificant result for subsequent well-being levels., (© 2011 The Authors. Child Development © 2011 Society for Research in Child Development, Inc.)

The present study examined whether combinations of ethnicity, gender, and age moderated the association between perceived discrimination and psychological well-being indicators (depressive symptoms, self-esteem, and life satisfaction) in a nationally representative sample of Black youth. The data were from the National Survey of American Life, which includes 810 African American and 360 Caribbean Black adolescents. The results indicated main effects such that perceived discrimination was linked to increased depressive symptoms and decreased self-esteem and life satisfaction. Additionally, there were significant interactions for ethnicity, gender, and race. Specifically, older Caribbean Black female adolescents exhibited higher depressive symptoms and lower life satisfaction in the context of high levels of perceived discrimination compared with older African American male adolescents.

The present study examined discrimination attributions in the psychological well-being of Black adolescents. Findings are based on a representative sample of 810 African American and 360 Caribbean Black youth, aged 13 to 17, who participated in the National Survey of American Life (NSAL). Youth completed measures of perceived discrimination, discrimination attributions, depressive symptoms, self-esteem and life satisfaction. Approximately half the youth attributed discrimination to race/ethnicity (43%), followed by age (17%), physical appearance (16.5%) and gender (7.5%) and there were no ethnic, gender or age differences regarding discrimination attributions. Key findings suggest that the association between perceived discrimination and psychological did not vary according to discrimination attribution, which implies that discrimination is harmful for Black youth regardless of the attribution.

Among 224 African American adolescents (mean age=14), the associations between interracial and intraracial contact and school-level diversity on changes in racial identity over a 3-year period were examined. Youths were determined to be diffused, foreclosed, moratorium, or achieved, and change or stability in identity status was examined. Contact with Black students, Black friends, and White friends predicted change in identity status. Furthermore, in racially diverse schools, having more Black friends was associated with identity stability. Students reporting low contact with Black students in racially diverse schools were more likely to report identity change if they had few Black friends. In students reporting high contact with Blacks in predominantly White schools, their identity was less likely to change for students with fewer White friends., (© 2010 The Authors. Child Development © 2010 Society for Research in Child Development, Inc.)

The present study examined the influence of cognitive development in the relationship between multiple types of racial discrimination and psychological well-being. A sample of 322 African American adolescents (53% female), aged 13-18, completed measures of cognitive development, racial discrimination, self-esteem and depressive symptoms. Based on the cognitive development measure, youth were categorized as having pre-formal or formal reasoning abilities. The results indicate no significant differences in perceptions of individual, cultural or collective/institutional racism between pre-formal reasoning and formal reasoning adolescents. However, the results do suggest that perceptions of collective/institutional racism were more harmful for the self-esteem of pre-formal reasoning youth than the self-esteem of formal reasoning youth. The implications for the racial discrimination literature among African American adolescents are discussed.

This study examines underlying mechanisms in the relationship between an Africentric worldview and depressive symptoms. Participants were 112 African American young adults. An Africentric worldview buffered the association between perceived stress and depressive symptoms. The relationship between an Africentric worldview and depressive symptoms was mediated by perceived stress and emotion-focused coping. These findings highlight the protective function of an Africentric worldview in the context of African Americans' stress experiences and psychological health and offer promise for enhancing African American mental health service delivery and treatment interventions.

The present study examined the relation between multiple types of racial discrimination and psychological well-being across racial identity profiles. A sample of 322 African American adolescents completed measures of racial identity, racial discrimination, self-esteem and depressive symptoms. Cluster analyses were conducted to create previously identified racial identity profiles and 3 were evident: Buffering/Defensive, Alienated, and Idealized. The racial identity profiles moderated the relation between perceptions of racial discrimination and psychological well-being such that perceptions of racial discrimination were linked to higher levels of depressive symptoms for Alienated youth but not for Buffering/Defensive or Idealized youth. The implications for the racial discrimination literature among African American adolescents are discussed.

This study tested the longitudinal association between perceptions of racial discrimination and racial identity among a sample of 219 African American adolescents, aged 14 to 18. Structural equation modeling was used to test relations between perceptions of racial discrimination and racial identity dimensions, namely, racial centrality, private regard, and public regard at 3 time points. The results indicated that perceived racial discrimination at Time 1 was negatively linked to public regard at Time 2. Nested analyses using age were conducted, and perceptions of racial discrimination at Time 2 were negatively linked to private regard at Time 3 among older adolescents. The findings imply that perceived racial discrimination is linked to negative views that the broader society has of African Americans.

The present study examined contextual influences on the relationship between racial discrimination (individual, cultural, and collective/institutional) and psychological well-being. Two hundred and fifty two African American adolescents (46% male and 54% female, average age = 16) completed measures of racial discrimination, self-esteem, depressive symptoms and life satisfaction. Archival information regarding the racial/ethnic composition of the participants' neighborhoods and schools was used and increased school diversity was linked to increased perceptions of cultural discrimination. Regardless of school and neighborhood diversity, high perceptions of collective/institutional discrimination were linked to lower self-esteem for students in high diversity settings. Further, high levels of collective/institutional discrimination were associated with lower life satisfaction for African American youth in low diversity settings.

The present study examined ethnic, gender, and age differences in perceived discrimination and the association between perceived discrimination and psychological well-being in a nationally representative sample of Black adolescents. Data are from the National Survey of African Life (NSAL), which includes 810 African American and 360 Caribbean Black youth. Results indicate that the majority of Black youth perceived at least 1 discriminatory incident in the previous year. Adolescents at later stages of development perceived more discrimination than those at earlier stages, and African American and Caribbean Black males perceived more discrimination than their female counterparts. Perceptions of discrimination were positively linked to depressive symptoms and were negatively linked to self-esteem and life satisfaction, regardless of ethnicity. However, Caribbean Black youth appear to be more vulnerable when they perceive high levels of discrimination.

Cluster analytic methods were used to create 4 theorized ethnic identity statuses (achieved, foreclosed, moratorium, and diffused) among 940 African American adolescents (13-17 years old), college students (18-23 years old), and adults (27-78 years old). Evidence for the existence of 4 identity statuses was found across the 3 age groups. The distribution of individuals differed by age group, with the older participants disproportionately occupying the more mature statuses. Identity status was related to identity content such that achieved individuals reported higher levels of racial centrality and private regard. Finally, there was a significant interaction between developmental age group and identity status for depressive symptoms such that diffused college students reported higher symptoms than achieved college students. No status differences were found for the other 2 age groups.

Although the identity formation model is widely used to assess adolescent ethnic identity development, the model propositions have rarely been tested. The existence of the identity statuses (diffuse, foreclosed, moratorium, achieved), the proposed developmental trajectories, and whether youth in the achieved status report higher levels of psychological well-being were examined among a longitudinal sample of 224 African American adolescents, aged 11-17. Cluster analyses were used to create 4 identity statuses consistent with the theoretical model at both time points. The findings indicate that some adolescents progressed, while others regressed or remained constant across time periods. Lastly, the results generally support the assumption that individuals in the achieved status had the highest levels of psychological well-being at both time periods.