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Historical specimens, when available, can provide new insight into the distribution and evolution of pathogens that may not be discernible from more recent samples. We used ticks collected from hunter-killed white-tailed deer in New Jersey in 2002 to examine the prevalence and distribution of four pathogens transmitted by Ixodes scapularis, the blacklegged tick. Infection with Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto, Babesia microti, and Anaplasma phagocytophilum (the agents of Lyme disease, human babesiosis, and human granulocytic anaplasmosis, respectively) was highest in the Coastal Plain and lowest in the northwestern Skylands region. These patterns correspond well with the historically observed northward expansion of I. scapularis within New Jersey and the comparatively recent increase in human cases of these pathogens in the northern part of the state. Additionally, we provide evidence that Borrelia miyamotoi, a relatively new emerging pathogen and agent of relapsing fever, was widespread (though not common) throughout the state in 2002. Our findings highlight the need for enhanced awareness of tick-borne diseases other than Lyme and implementation of large-scale tick surveillance in endemic regions.

Rickettsia felis is a human pathogen transmitted by the cat flea, Ctenocephalides felis (Bouché) (str. LSU), as well as an obligate symbiont of the parthenogenic booklouse Liposcelis bostrychophila (Badonnel) (str. LSU-Lb). The influence of genetic variability in these two strains of R. felis on host specialization and fitness and possible resulting differences on infection and transmission kinetics in C. felis is unknown. Utilizing an artificial host system, cat fleas were exposed to a R. felis str. LSU-Lb-infected bloodmeal and monitored for infection at 7-d intervals for 28 d. Quantitative real-time PCR was used to determine rickettsial load and infection density in newly exposed cat fleas, and transmission frequency between cat fleas. The effect of persistent R. felis infection on cat flea F1 progeny was also assessed. At 7 d postexposure 76.7% of the cat fleas successfully acquired R. felis str. LSU-Lb. In R. felis str. LSU-Lb-exposed cat fleas, the mean infection load (6.15 × 106), infection density (0.76), and infection prevalence (91/114) were significantly greater than R. felis str. LSU infection load (3.09 × 106), infection density (0.68), and infection prevalence (76/113). A persistent R. felis str. LSU-Lb infection was detected for 28 d in adult cat fleas but neither female:male ratio distortion nor vertical transmission was observed in F1 progeny. While infection kinetics differed, with higher intensity associated with R. felis str. LSU-Lb, no distinct phenotype was observed in the F1 progeny.

We determined the temporal aspects of detecting bluetongue virus (BTV) and epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus (EHDV) in postmortem bone marrow samples of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) using molecular and in vitro cell culture techniques. Bone marrow samples from carcasses were collected and assayed on the day of death and at intervals up to 16 wk after death. We recovered BTV and EHDV from fresh bone marrow collected at day 0 by isolation in Vero and BHK-21 cell cultures. However, attempts to replicate the viruses from aged bone marrow in Vero and BHK-21 cell cultures failed. The real-time quantitative reverse transcriptase PCR (qRT-PCR) results confirmed that EHDV and BTV can be detected in aged bone marrow for up to 12 and 16 wk, respectively, after death. The RNA of BTV and EHDV could be detected by qRT-PCR in white-tailed deer bone marrow for extended periods of time postmortem. This technique will provide a useful tool for retrospective determination of BTV or EHDV infection of white-tailed deer at the time of death.

a b s t r a c t Autodissemination of insecticides is a novel strategy for mosquito management. We tested if contami- nated Aedes albopictus (Skuse) mosquitoes from a small area treated with commercial formulations (79 gm a.i. pyriproxyfen/ha) using conventional techniques, would disseminate pyriproxyfen over a wider area. Pyriproxyfen showed LC50 = 0.012 ppb for Ae. albopictus. Direct treatment and autodissemination effi- cacy was measured as a pupal mortality by conducting Ae. albopictus larval bioassay. A tire pile (n = 100 tires) treated by backpack sprayer as a point-source treatment showed higher pupal mortality in 2010 (60.8% for week 0-6) than in 2011 (38.3% for week 0-6). The sentinel containers placed for autodissem- ination in four compass directions out to 200-400 m from the tire pile showed 15.8% pupal mortality (week 1-6) in the first year, and 1.4% pupal mortality in the second year. No significant difference was detected among the distances and direction for pupal mortality. In area-wide treatments, vegetation was sprayed in checkerboard pattern (3.7% of 105 ha) using backpack sprayer in 2010 and in strips (24.8% of 94 ha) using truck-mounted ultra-low volume (ULV) sprayer in 2011. In both years, the area-wide direct treatment efficacy was lower (30.3% during 2010 and 5.3% in 2011) than point-source treatments. Autodissemination in area-wide plots was higher in 2010 (10.3%) than 2011 (2.9%). However, area-wide treatments were ineffective on field populations of Ae. albopictus as monitored by using BGS traps. We found accumulation of pyriproxyfen in the week 6 autodissemination containers in both experiments. The differences in autodissemination in 2010 and 2011 can be attributed to higher rainfall in the second year that may have eroded the pyriproxyfen from treatment surfaces and sentinel containers. Our study shows that ULV surface treatments of conventional formulation do not work for autodissemination. The effectiveness of pyriproxyfen in autodissemination may be improved by developing specific formulations to treat vegetation and tires that can load high doses on mosquitoes.

The Asian tiger mosquito, Aedes albopictus (Skuse), is an invasive species and a major pest problem in urban and suburban locales in New Jersey. To assess its potential role as an arbovirus vector, we sampled Ae. albopictus from two New Jersey counties over a 3-yr period and estimated the prevalence of virus infection by Vero cell culture and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction assays. Three virus isolates were obtained from 34,567 field-collected Ae. albopictus, and all were identified as Cache Valley virus by molecular methods. Ae. albopictus (N = 3,138), collected in Mercer County from late July through early September 2011, also were retested for West Nile virus (WNV) by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, and all were negative. These results corroborate previous findings showing that Ae. albopictus may occasionally acquire Cache Valley virus, a deer-associated arbovirus, in nature. In contrast, we did not detect WNV infection in Ae. albopictus despite concurrent WNV amplification in this region.

We obtained 160 Biogents Sentinel™ traps (BGS-traps) to monitor adult mosquito populations for the Area-wide Pest Management Program for the Asian tiger mosquito (Aedes albopictus) in New Jersey. We deployed between 90 and 110 BGS-traps weekly from May through October of 2008, 2009, 2010, and 2011. Here we detail our experience: challenges with acquisition, defects in construction, as well as actions taken to correct problems we found and preempt them in the future. Further, we describe the impact of these problems on our research and provide a cost analysis of repairs.

Blood meal analysis (BMA) is a useful tool for epidemiologists and vector ecologists to assess which vector species are critical to disease transmission. In most current BMA assays vertebrate primers amplify DNA from a blood meal, commonly an abundant mitochondrial (mtDNA) locus, which is then sequenced and compared to known sequences in GenBank to identify its source. This technique, however, is time consuming and costly as each individual sample must be sequenced for species identification and mixed blood meals cloned prior to sequencing. Further, we found that several standard BMA vertebrate primers match sequences of the mtDNA of the Asian tiger mosquito, Aedes albopictus, making their use for blood meal identification in this species impossible. Because of the importance of Ae. albopictus as a vector of dengue and chikungunya viruses to humans, we designed a rapid assay that allows easy identification of human blood meals as well as mixed meals between human and nonhuman mammals. The assay consists of a nested PCR targeting the cytochrome b (cytb) mtDNA locus with a blocking primer in the internal PCR. The blocking primer has a 3' inverted dT modification that when used with the Stoffel Taq fragment prevents amplification of nuclear cytochrome b pseudogenes in humans and allows for the continued use of cytb in BMA studies, as it is one of the most species-rich loci in GenBank. We used our assay to examine 164 blooded specimens of Ae. albopictus from suburban coastal New Jersey and found 62% had obtained blood from humans with 7.6% mixes between human and another mammal species. We also confirmed the efficiency of our assay by comparing it with standard BMA primers on a subset of 62 blooded Ae. albopictus. While this assay was designed for use in Ae. albopictus, it will have broader application in other anthropophilic mosquitoes.

Background Aedes (Stegomyia) albopictus (Skuse) is an important disease vector and biting nuisance. During the 2009 active season, six ∼1000-parcel sites were studied, three in urban and three in suburban areas of New Jersey, United States, to examine the efficacy of standard integrated urban mosquito control strategies applied area wide. Active source reduction, larviciding, adulticiding and public education (source reduction through education) were implemented in one site in each county, an education-only approach was developed in a second site and a third site was used as an untreated experimental control. Populations were surveyed weekly with BG-Sentinel traps and ovitraps. Results A substantial reduction in Ae. albopictus populations was achieved in urban sites, but only modest reductions in suburban sites. Education alone achieved significant reductions in urban adult Ae. albopictus. Egg catches echoed adult catches only in suburban sites. Conclusions There are significant socioeconomic and climatic differences between urban and suburban sites that impact upon Ae. albopictus populations and the efficacy of the control methods tested. An integrated pest management approach can affect abundances, but labor-intensive, costly source reduction was not enough to maintain Ae. albopictus counts below a nuisance threshold. Nighttime adult population suppression using truck-mounted adulticides can be effective. Area-wide cost-effective strategies are necessary. Published 2013. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA

The etiological agents that cause human babesiosis (Babesia microti) and Lyme disease (Borrelia burgdorferi) share a common tick vector (Ixodes scapularis Say) and rodent reservoir (Peromyscus leucopus), but because the geographical distribution of babesiosis is more restricted than Lyme disease, it was not considered a nationally notifiable disease until 2011. Although recent studies have shown dramatic increases in the number of cases of babesiosis and expansion of its range, little is known about infection and coinfection prevalence of these pathogens in the primary tick vector. Of the 478 I. scapularis nymphs collected within six Monmouth County, NJ, municipalities between 2004 and 2006, 4.0 and 10.0% were infected with B. microti and B. burgdorferi, respectively, while 2.9% were coinfected. Analysis of the 610 I. scapularis adults collected during the same period yielded an infection prevalence of 8.2% for B. microti and 45.2% for B. burgdorferi, while 6.2% were coinfected. The potential public health importance of these findings is discussed.

Adult control of Aedes albopictus via ultra-low volume is difficult because this species occurs primarily in peridomestic habitats where obstacles such as buildings and vegetation can disrupt spray plumes and droplet dispersion. We determined droplet penetration and characterization of a pyrethroid adulticide applied from the ground at mid (46.77 ml/ha) and maximum (93.53 ml/ha) label rates within cryptic habitats of urban and suburban environments. Droplets were collected from all habitats, with no significant differences detected between locations within the same application rate or collection method. No differences were detected in droplet densities (drops per mm2) between rates within urban environments, but more droplets were collected in urban (149.93 ± 11.07 SE) than suburban sites (114.37 ± 11.32) at the maximum label rate (P = 0.003). The excellent penetration of aerosols into cryptic habitats of an urban site was likely due to the shorter spray paths afforded by our network of roads and alleys. Mid label rates displayed similar droplet density values as maximum label rates in urban areas, indicating that lower rates may be used effectively to reduce costs, lessen non-target effects, and increase environmental stewardship. Advances in formulations and technology are driving changes in adulticide applications, leading to use of the minimum effective dose for maximum efficacy, precision, and accountability.

Aedes albopictus (Skuse) and Ae. japonicus (Theobald) are important container-inhabiting mosquitoes that transmit disease agents, outcompete native species, and continue to expand their range in the United States. Both species deposit eggs in natural and artificial containers and thrive in peridomestic environments. The goal of our study was to examine the types and characteristics of containers that are most productive for these species in the northeastern United States. In total, 306 containers were sampled in urban, suburban, and rural areas of New Jersey. Multiple biotic and abiotic factors were recorded in an attempt to identify variables associated with the productivity of each species. Based on pupal abundance and density of container types, results showed that tires, trash cans, and planter dishes were the most important containers for Ae. albopictus, while planter dishes were the most important containers for Ae. japonicus. Container color (black and gray), material (rubber), and type (tires) were correlated with species presence for Ae. albopictus and Ae. japonicus. These factors may play a role in the selection of oviposition sites by female mosquitoes or in the survival of their progeny. Differences in species composition and abundance were detected between areas classified as urban, suburban, and rural. In urban and suburban areas, Ae. albopictus was more abundant in container habitats than Ae. japonicus; however, Ae. japonicus was more abundant in rural areas, and when water temperatures were below 14 degrees C. Our results suggest many variables can influence the presence of Ae. albopictus and Ae. japonicus in container habitats in northeastern United States.

Container-dwelling mosquitoes use a wide variety of container habitats. The bottle cap is often cited as the smallest container habitat used by container species. When containers are small, the habitat conditions can greatly affect evaporation rates that in turn can affect the species dynamics within the container. An evaporation rate model was adapted to predict evaporation rates in mosquito container habitats. In both the laboratory and field, our model was able to predict actual evaporation rates. Examples of how the model may be applied are provided by examining the likelihood of Aedes albopictus (Skuse), Aedes aegypti (L.), and Culex pipiens pipiens (L.) completing their development within small-volume containers under typical environmental conditions and a range of temperatures. Our model suggests that under minimal direct sunlight exposure, both Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus could develop within a bottle cap before complete evaporation. Our model shows that under the environmental conditions when a plastic field container was sampled, neither Ae. albopictus or Cx. p. pipiens could complete development in that particular container before the water evaporated. Although rainfall could replenish the habitat, the effects of evaporation would increase larval density, which could in turn further decrease developmental rates.

The goal of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a public health educational campaign to reduce backyard mosquito-larval habitats. Three communities each, within two New Jersey counties, were randomly selected to receive: (1) both education and mosquito control, (2) education only, and (3) no education or mosquito control. Four separate educational events included a 5-day elementary school curriculum in the spring, and three door to door distributions of educational brochures. Before and after each educational event, the numbers of mosquito-larval container habitats were counted in 50 randomly selected homes per study area. Container surveys allowed us to measure source reduction behavior. Although we saw reductions in container habitats in sites receiving education, they were not significantly different from the control. Our results suggest that traditional passive means of public education, which were often considered the gold standard for mosquito control programs, are not sufficient to motivate residents to reduce backyard mosquito-larval habitats.

The Asian tiger mosquito Aedes albopictus (Skuse) is rapidly increasing its global range and importance in transmission of chikungunya and dengue viruses. We tested pellet formulations of a monomolecular film (Agnique) and (S)-methoprene (Altosid) under laboratory and field conditions. In the laboratory, Agnique provided 80% control for 20 days, whereas Altosid, in combination with Agnique, provided 80% control for > 60 days. During field trials, the 1:1 pel- let ratio of combined products provided > 95% control for at least 32 days and 50% control for at least 50 days. Altosid remained effective after a 107-day laboratory-induced drought, suggesting that the product serves as a means of control during drought conditions and against spring broods in temperate regions. Agnique and Altosid, when used in tandem for cryptic, difficult-to-treat locations, can provide long-term control of Ae . albopictus larvae and pupae. The possible additive or synergistic effects of the combined products deserve further investigation.

Standard surveillance traps in North America for adult Aedes albopictus (Skuse) (Diptera: Culicidae), an invasive mosquito with public health implications, are currently ineffective. We compared the efficacy of the BG-Sentinel trap (BGS) with and without lures (BG-lure, octenol, and CO2), the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention light trap (CDC) with and without lures, and the gravid trap (GT) for Ae. albopictus collection in two urban sites in New Jersey. The BGS with or without lures collected more Ae. albopictus compared with other trap configurations and was more specific for Ae. albopictus. In Camden County, the BGS with lures collected three times more Ae. albopictus than the CDC (with CO2 only) and five times more than the GT. In Mercer County, BGS with lures collected the most mosquitoes, with 3 times more Ae. albopictus than the CDC with all lures and 50 times more than the GT. The BGS collected more male Ae. albopictus than other traps in both counties, providing further population monitoring. The GT and BGS provided a relative measure of the enzootic activity of West Nile virus in Culex spp. and the potential epidemic activity of WNV in Ae. albopictus. The BGS provides effective chemical and visual cues for host-seeking Ae. albopictus and should be used as a part of existing surveillance programs and new initiatives targeting this mosquito.

In a recent study, the combined use of 4-Posters and Maxforce TMS bait boxes along with a barrier application of deltamethrin resulted in accelerated control of Ixodes scapularis Say by sequentially attacking each postembryonic life stage. We report the results of a follow-up study to test the ability of 4-Posters used alone to sustain the high levels of control achieved through the integrated tick management (ITM) approach after withdrawal of the bait boxes. In the first year after withdrawal, we observed declines in the level of control of larvae on small mammals, as well as of numbers of host-seeking larvae in the treatment area. There was no difference in the level of control of host-seeking adults in the treatment area after 2 yr. Within 2 yr, we observed a decline in control of subadult ticks infesting small mammals, but continued to see significant control of both host-seeking nymphs (85.9%) and larvae (89.0%) in the treatment area. The inconsistency that we observed between the apparent ability of 4-Posters to sustain high levels of control of host-seeking ticks, although having less effect on tick burdens on small mammal hosts, may be explained by the host-seeking ecology of immature I. scapularis.

We tested the hypothesis that day-biting mosquitoes contribute to child obesity by reducing opportunities for summer outdoor play. The influence of Asian tiger mosquito (Aedes albopictus) prevalence on child outdoor physical activity was compared in 2 matched urban communities, one treated for mosquito abatement and one untreated. More time was spent outdoors by children where abatement took place.

Duet™ was field evaluated against caged Aedes albopictus, with the use of a truck-mounted ultra-low volume (ULV) cold aerosol sprayer at the rate of 90.6 ml/ha. Cages were placed in 3 rows stationed 30.5, 61.0, and 91.5 m downwind of the spray vehicle. Initial knockdown was >99% with mortality ranging between 95.8% and 98.0% across the distances. Volume median diameter (VMD) and droplet density were slightly reduced (16.4% and 18.6%, respectively) by distance. Reduction in VMD and droplet density, however, did not reduce mortality. The ULV application of Duet is an effective adulticide against Ae. albopictus and may be a useful tool for use in mosquito abatement programs.

We evaluated 2 strategies to manage Aedes albopictus: 1) motorized backpack applications and 2) source reduction (coupled with hand-applied applications of larvicide). Backpack applications used a water-dispersible granular formulation (VectoBac WDG) of Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis (Bti), whereas source reduction used granular formulations of the insect growth regulator methoprene (Altosid) combined with a monomolecular film surfactant (Agnique). Six subplots (total 8.02 ha) were selected for backpack applications, source reduction, and control groups. The experiments were blind with applications conducted randomly and independently. Efficacy was determined through placement of bioassay cups with larvae within experimental plots 1 day before treatment. Backpack applications resulted in 76% (+/- 8.2% SE) and source reduction resulted in 92% (+/- 4.1% SE) larval mortality. Backpack applications required 50 times less labor than source reduction (0.25 versus 0.005 ha/h). The cost of backpack applications, including labor, was $159.88/ha, compared with $659.65/ha for source reduction. Although overall efficacy was slightly lower, motorized backpack applications of Bti were more efficient and cost-effective than source reduction methods to control Ae. albopictus in urban settings at the community level.

Aedes albopictus (Skuse) is an invasive mosquito that has become an important vector of chikungunya and dengue viruses. Immature Ae. albopictus thrive in backyard household containers that require treatment with larvicides and when adult populations reach pest levels or disease transmission is ongoing, adulticiding is often required. To assess the feasibility of control of USA populations, we tested the susceptibility of Ae. albopictus to chemicals representing the main insecticide classes with different modes of action: organochlorines, organophosphates, carbamates, pyrethroids, insect growth regulators (IGR), naturalytes, and biolarvicides. We characterized a susceptible reference strain of Ae. albopictus, ATM95, and tested the susceptibility of eight USA populations to five adulticides and six larvicides. We found that USA populations are broadly susceptible to currently available larvicides and adulticides. Unexpectedly, however, we found significant resistance to dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) in two Florida populations and in a New Jersey population. We also found resistance to malathion, an organophosphate, in Florida and New Jersey and reduced susceptibility to the IGRs pyriproxyfen and methoprene. All populations tested were fully susceptible to pyrethroids. Biochemical assays revealed a significant up-regulation of GSTs in DDT-resistant populations in both larval and adult stages. Also, β-esterases were up-regulated in the populations with suspected resistance to malathion. Of note, we identified a previously unknown amino acid polymorphism (Phe → Leu) in domain III of the VGSC, in a location known to be associated with pyrethroid resistance in another container-inhabiting mosquito, Aedes aegypti L. The observed DDT resistance in populations from Florida may indicate multiple introductions of this species into the USA, possibly from tropical populations. In addition, the mechanisms underlying DDT resistance often result in pyrethroid resistance, which would undermine a remaining tool for the control of Ae. albopictus. Continued monitoring of the insecticide resistance status of this species is imperative.

The increasing range of Aedes albopictus, the Asian tiger mosquito, in the USA and the threat of chikungunya and dengue outbreaks vectored by this species have necessitated novel approaches to control this peridomestic mosquito. Conventional methods such as adulticiding provide temporary relief, but fail to manage this pest on a sustained basis. We explored the use of cold aerosol foggers and misting machines for area-wide applications of Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis (VectoBac WDG) as a larvicide targeting Aedes albopictus. During 2010–2013 we performed initially open field trials and then 19 operational area-wide applications in urban and suburban residential areas in northeastern USA to test three truck-mounted sprayers at two application rates. Area-wide applications of WDG in open field conditions at 400 and 800 g/ha killed on average 87% of tested larvae. Once techniques were optimized in residential areas, applications with a Buffalo Turbine Mist Sprayer at a rate of 800 g/ha, the best combination, consistently provided over 90% mortality. Importantly, there was no significant decrease in efficacy with distance from the spray line even in blocks of row homes with trees and bushes in the backyards. Under laboratory conditions Bti deposition in bioassay cups during the operational trials resulted in over 6 weeks of residual control. Our results demonstrate that area-wide truck mounted applications of WDG can effectively suppress Ae. albopictus larvae and should be used in integrated mosquito management approaches to control this nuisance pest and disease vector.

7 ABSTRACT. Using contingent valuation we estimated the perceived value of an area-wide integrated pest management program for the Asian tiger mosquito, Aedes albopictus, implemented in Monmouth and Mercer counties, NJ. We estimated residents' maximum willingness-to-pay and perceived monetary benefits (willingness-to-pay excluding residents who protested all types of payments) and payment modality through a telephone survey of 51 randomly selected households. The mean (6 SE) perceived monetary benefits for an enhanced mosquito abatement program was $9.54 6 2.90 per capita per year. Most respondents would have been willing to pay through taxes (35%) or charitable donations (6%) starting then, or through one of these approaches in the future (43%), whereas 16% were completely unwilling to pay any additional costs whatsoever. We projected that the perceived monetary benefits to the counties' 1.01 million residents for an enhanced mosquito control program would be $9.61 million annually. Thus, collectively residents perceived monetary benefits of 3.67 times the combined 2008 annual operating costs of the counties' existing mosquito control programs of $2.61 million.

The etiological agents that cause human babesiosis (Babesia microti) and Lyme disease (Borrelia burgdorferi) share a common tick vector (Ixodes scapularis Say) and rodent reservoir (Peromyscus leucopus), but because the geographical distribution of babesiosis is more restricted than Lyme disease, it was not considered a nationally notifiable disease until 2011. Although recent studies have shown dramatic increases in the number of cases of babesiosis and expansion of its range, little is known about infection and coinfection prevalence of these pathogens in the primary tick vector. Of the 478 I. scapularis nymphs collected within six Monmouth County, NJ, municipalities between 2004 and 2006, 4.0 and 10.0% were infected with B. microti and B. burgdorferi, respectively, while 2.9% were coinfected. Analysis of the 610 I. scapularis adults collected during the same period yielded an infection prevalence of 8.2% for B. microti and 45.2% for B. burgdorferi, while 6.2% were coinfected. The potential public health importance of these findings is discussed.

The Biogents® Sentinel (BGS) trap is the standard tool to monitor adult Aedes (Stegomyia) albopictus (Skuse) (Diptera: Culicidae), the Asian tiger mosquito. BGS traps are commonly placed in residential properties during surveillance operations, but locations within properties may have significant differences in ambient light, temperature, and humidity (e.g. between a sunlit lawn and shady underbrush). We examined the effect of BGS trap placement on Ae. albopictus capture rates in three residential properties in Monmouth County, New Jersey, USA. In each property we visually selected locations as shade, partial shade, and sun. Traps in “partial shade” locations were under vegetation and were exposed to filtered sunlight during some parts of the day while “shaded” locations were never exposed to direct sunlight. Locations defined as “sun” were exposed to direct sunlight for large parts of the day. We placed a BGS trap in each of the three location types and used small data loggers to measure temperature, relative humidity, and light exposure at each trap during a 24-hour deployment. To address temporal variability, we made seven separate measurements from 31 August to 22 September 2010. We found that “partial shade” and “full shade” locations did not differ but that “full sun” locations had significantly higher light exposure, higher temperature, and lower humidity. Importantly, Ae. albopictus catches (males, females, or both) were consistently and significantly over 3 times higher in traps located in shaded locations. To further investigate the effects of local temperature and humidity on surveillance we examined Ae. albopictus collections from 37 BGS traps fitted with data loggers and deployed weekly from August through mid October, during the 2009 season, in three urban sites in Mercer County, NJ. We confirmed that local climate influences capture rates and that Ae. albopictus surveillance projects need to monitor trap placement carefully for maximum efficiency.

4,5 ABSTRACT. We used published accounts to describe the known statewide distribution of the lone star tick, Amblyomma americanum, in New Jersey and field surveys to characterize the geographical range of A. americanum and selected A. americanum-transmitted pathogens in Monmouth County, the hypothesized northern limit of the species distribution. Ticks were collected using standardized methods from 50 widely dispersed public access areas within 18 municipalities to produce estimates of relative abundance among sites. Collected A. americanum adults were stored at 280uC until processed for DNA extraction. Individual ticks were subjected to polymerase chain reaction analyses to detect the presence of Ehrlichia chaffeensis, E. ewingii, Rickettsia amblyommii, and Borrelia lonestari. The range of A. americanum was generally limited to the southern half of New Jersey. Within Monmouth County, we collected A. americanum from 9 of 18 municipalities (50%) and 24 (48%) of the surveyed properties. We found at least 1 pathogen at 17 (70.8%) sites located within 6 of 9 municipalities, while all 4 target pathogens were detected in 5 of those 6 (83.3%) municipalities. The geographical distribution of A. americanum and its associated pathogens appeared to be restricted to the southern portion of the county. Possible factors governing the distribution are discussed.

BACKGROUND: Aedes (Stegomyia) albopictus (Skuse), the Asian tiger mosquito, is an introduced invasive species in the United States that is responsible for a significant proportion of service requests to local mosquito control programs. This containerutilizing mosquito is refractory to standard mosquito abatement measures in the United States. This study is part of a USDA-ARS project to develop an area-wide management strategy for Ae. albopictus. The goal was to identify three study sites, similar in socioeconomic parameters, geography and Ae. albopictus abundance, in urban and suburban areas in Mercer and Monmouth counties in New Jersey. Prior service requests and light trap counts and also detailed county maps were used to chose nine preliminary sites (four in Mercer and five in Monmouth) where weekly surveillance forAe.albopictus was performed throughout the 2008 active season. RESULTS: Although outliers were detected, socioeconomic variables in the study sites within each county were fairly consistent. Ae.albopictus abundance was associated with poverty levels and had the highest maxima in Mercer, although average mosquito abundance was similar in urban Mercer and suburban Monmouth. CONCLUSION: Three study sites in each county were identified for future studies. The summer-long surveillance also revealed socioeconomic variables critical for the development of integrated mosquito management. c � 2011 Society of Chemical Industry

A supporting stand to suspend rotating impactors and mosquito cages is a requirement for field tests during pesticide efficacy trials. We present schematics for a collection device and associated support system for sampling droplets of ultra-low-volume (ULV) sprays during mosquito adulticide applications. This system offers the advantages of cost efficiency, increased ease of deployment, off-season storage, visibility, stability, and ULV collection efficacy. Use of this system ensures that droplet collection and meteorological equipment is at appropriate and consistent heights between trials. The 2 arms of the support allow for placement of multiple cages, light-emitting or reflecting devices, and wind-indicating ribbons to be attached to the station. The support described makes possible deployment of stations over a wider variety of terrains, increasing the extent of field trials. Presentation of the simple design and fabrication of the rotating collection device (impactor), T-station, and its support is provided.

A pulley-block system for elevating sentinel chicken coops was designed to conduct mosquito-borne virus surveillance in the forest canopy. This modified design allows traditional captive sentinel bird cages to be hoisted easily to the desired height and lowered at regular intervals for routine maintenance and sampling of the flocks. The design specifications of this canopy system are modifications that can easily be incorporated to existing rabbit hutches used in ground-level captive sentinel systems.

Standard surveillance traps in North America for adult Aedes albopictus (Skuse) (Diptera: Culicidae), an invasive mosquito with public health implications, are currently ineffective. We compared the efficacy of the BG-Sentinel trap (BGS) with and without lures (BG-lure, octenol, and CO2), the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention light trap (CDC) with and without lures, and the gravid trap (GT) for Ae. albopictus collection in two urban sites in New Jersey. The BGS with or without lures collected more Ae. albopictus compared with other trap configurations and was more specific for Ae. albopictus. In Camden County, the BGS with lures collected three times more Ae. albopictus than the CDC (with CO2 only) and five times more than the GT. In Mercer County, BGS with lures collected the most mosquitoes, with 3 times more Ae. albopictus than the CDC with all lures and 50 times more than the GT. The BGS collected more male Ae. albopictus than other traps in both counties, providing further population monitoring. The GT and BGS provided a relative measure of the enzootic activity of West Nile virus in Culex spp. and the potential epidemic activity of WNV in Ae. albopictus. The BGS provides effective chemical and visual cues for host-seeking Ae. albopictus and should be used as a part of existing surveillance programs and new initiatives targeting this mosquito.

Spring acaricide applications directed against nymphal Ixodes scapularis have been shown to be effective, but are perceived by the public as having significant adverse environmental impacts, particularly against nontarget organisms. Targeting the adult stage of I. scapularis in the fall would hypothetically result in indirect control of subsequent subadult stages while avoiding other arthropods that are typically inactive during this period. We demonstrate that single fall applications of deltamethrin for 3 consecutive years immediately reduced fall questing adults, while also rapidly reducing the abundance of all postembryonic stages. Deltamethrin applied to the shrub-layer vegetation resulted in levels of control between 97.1% and 100% at 7 days postapplication. Repeated applications against the reproductive stage of I. scapularis progressively reduced the abundance of larvae and nymphs in treated plots, reaching 91.4% and 100% by the conclusion of the study.

To evaluate their potential importance in the transmission of ixodid tick-borne borrelioses in Monmouth County, NJ, we collected host-seeking Ixodes scapularis Say and Amblyomma americanum (L.) (Acari: Ixodidae) adults and nymphs to determine relative encounter frequencies and the infection prevalence of selected Borrelia spp. in their respective tick vectors. We also reviewed records of all ticks submitted for identification by the public in Monmouth County during 2001-2005. Relative abundance of the two species varied markedly among sites. Adult encounter frequencies for the two species were similar; however, A. americanum nymphs were encountered 3 times more frequently than I. scapularis nymphs. Of 435 ticks submitted by the public, 50.1 and 38.9% were I. scapularis and A. americanum, respectively. However, during May through August, the peak Lyme disease transmission season in New Jersey, significantly more submitted ticks were A. americanum (55.9%), compared with I. scapularis (34.1%). Polymerase chain reaction analysis of 94 1. scapularis and 103 A. americanum adults yielded infection prevalences of 31.9% for B. burgdorferi and 5.8% for B. lonestari, respectively. Although the infection prevalence of B. burgdorferi in I. scapularis was considerably higher than the infection prevalence of B. lonestari in A. americanum, the higher encounter frequencies for A. americanum compared with I. scapularis observed in this and other studies may result in increased risk of acquiring exposure to A. americanum-transmitted pathogens. The potential public health implications of these results are discussed.

Aedes albopictus is the most invasive mosquito in the world, an important disease vector, and a biting nuisance that limits outdoor activities. Area-wide integrated pest management (AW-IPM) is the recommended control strategy. We conducted an economic evaluation of the AW-IPM project in Mercer and Monmouth Counties, New Jersey with a controlled design (AW-IPM vs. control) from 2009 through 2011. The study analyzed financial documents and staff time for AW-IPM and surveyed an average of 415 randomly chosen households in AW-IPM and control areas each fall from 2008 through 2011. Hours lost from yard and porch activities were calculated as differences between actual and potential hours of these activities in an average summer week if there had been no mosquito concerns. Net estimated benefits of AW-IPM were based on cross-over and difference-in-difference analyses. Reductions in hours lost were valued based on respondents' willingness to pay for a hypothetical extra hour free of mosquitoes spent on yard or porch activities and literature on valuation of a quality adjusted life year (QALY). The incremental cost of AW-IPM per adult was $41.18 per year. Number of hours lost due to mosquitoes in AW-IPM areas between the base year (2008) and the intervention years (2009-2011) declined by 3.30 hours per summer week in AW-IPM areas compared to control areas. Survey respondents valued this improvement at $27.37 per adult per summer week. Over the 13-week summer, an average adult resident gained 42.96 hours of yard and porch time, worth $355.82. The net benefit over the summer was $314.63. With an average of 0.0027 QALYs gained per adult per year, AW-IPM was cost effective at $15,300 per QALY gained. The benefit-cost ratio from hours gained was 8.64, indicating that each $1 spent on AW-IPM gave adults additional porch and yard time worth over $8.

Mosquito species that utilize peridomestic containers for immature development are commonly aggressive human biters, and because they often reach high abundance, create significant nuisance. One of these species, the Asian tiger mosquito Aedes albopictus, is an important vector of emerging infectious diseases, such as dengue, chikungunya, and Zika fevers. Integrated mosquito management (IMM) of Ae. albopictus is particularly difficult because it requires access to private yards in urban and suburban residences. It has become apparent that in the event of a public health concern due to this species, homeowners will have to be active participants in the control process by reducing mosquito habitats in their properties, an activity known as source reduction. However, limited attempts at quantifying the effect of source reduction by homeowners have had mixed results. Of note, many mosquito control programs in the US have some form of education outreach, however the primary approach is often passive focusing on the distribution of education materials as flyers. In 2010, we evaluated the use of active community peer education in a source reduction program, using AmeriCorps volunteers. The volunteers were mobilized over a 4-week period, in two areas with approximately 1,000 residences each in urban Mercer and suburban Monmouth counties in New Jersey, USA. The volunteers were first provided training on peridomestic mosquitoes and on basic approaches to reducing the number of container habitats for mosquito larvae in backyards. Within the two treatment areas the volunteers successfully engaged 758 separate homes. Repeated measures analysis of variance showed a significant reduction in container habitats in the sites where the volunteers actively engaged the community compared to untreated control areas in both counties. Our results suggest that active education using community peer educators can be an effective means of source reduction, and a critical tool in the arsenal against peridomestic mosquitoes.

Background Aedes albopictus is an invasive species which continues expanding its geographic range and involvement in mosquito-borne diseases such as chikungunya and dengue. Host selection patterns by invasive mosquitoes are critically important because they increase endemic disease transmission and drive outbreaks of exotic pathogens. Traditionally, Ae. albopictus has been characterized as an opportunistic feeder, primarily feeding on mammalian hosts but occasionally acquiring blood from avian sources as well. However, limited information is available on their feeding patterns in temperate regions of their expanded range. Because of the increasing expansion and abundance of Ae. albopictus and the escalating diagnoses of exotic pathogens in travelers returning from endemic areas, we investigated the host feeding patterns of this species in newly invaded areas to further shed light on its role in disease ecology and assess the public health threat of an exotic arbovirus outbreak. Methodology/Principal Findings We identified the vertebrate source of 165 blood meals in Ae. albopictus collected between 2008 and 2011 from urban and suburban areas in northeastern USA. We used a network of Biogents Sentinel traps, which enhance Ae. albopictus capture counts, to conduct our collections of blooded mosquitoes. We also analyzed blooded Culex mosquitoes collected alongside Ae. albopictus in order to examine the composition of the community of blood sources. We found no evidence of bias since as expected Culex blood meals were predominantly from birds (n = 149, 93.7%) with only a small proportion feeding on mammals (n = 10, 6.3%). In contrast, Aedes albopictus fed exclusively on mammalian hosts with over 90% of their blood meals derived from humans (n = 96, 58.2%) and domesticated pets (n = 38, 23.0% cats; and n = 24, 14.6% dogs). Aedes albopictus fed from humans significantly more often in suburban than in urban areas (χ2, p = 0.004) and cat-derived blood meals were greater in urban habitats (χ2, p = 0.022). Avian-derived blood meals were not detected in any of the Ae. albopictus tested. Conclusions/Significance The high mammalian affinity of Ae. albopictus suggests that this species will be an efficient vector of mammal- and human-driven zoonoses such as La Crosse, dengue, and chikungunya viruses. The lack of blood meals obtained from birds by Ae. albopictus suggest that this species may have limited exposure to endemic avian zoonoses such as St. Louis encephalitis and West Nile virus, which already circulate in the USA. However, growing populations of Ae. albopictus in major metropolitan urban and suburban centers, make a large autochthonous outbreak of an arbovirus such as chikungunya or dengue viruses a clear and present danger. Given the difficulties of Ae. albopictus suppression, we recommend that public health practitioners and policy makers install proactive measures for the imminent mitigation of an exotic pathogen outbreak., Author Summary Aedes albopictus is one of the most invasive and aggressive disease vectors in the world. The range of this species is currently still expanding, particularly into highly dense human population centers in temperate areas in the USA and Europe, raising the public health threat of emerging and re-emerging diseases such as chikungunya and dengue. The prominence of Ae. albopictus as a major vector was exposed during the global pandemic of chikungunya virus, primarily because of a virus adaptation which enhanced the transmission efficiency by this mosquito species and also because of the first locally-transmitted cases of chikungunya virus in temperate Europe. Blood feeding patterns by mosquitoes are a critical component of virus proliferation and determine the degree and intensity of disease epidemics, particularly in newly invaded areas. We examined the blood meal sources of invasive Ae. albopictus in the northernmost boundary of their range in temperate North America and found that the species fed exclusively on mammalian hosts, with over 90% of their blood meals derived from humans and their associated pets (cats and dogs). The high mammalian affinity of Ae. albopictus suggests that this species may be an efficient vector of mammal-driven zoonoses and human-driven anthroponoses such as dengue and chikungunya viruses in this region.

The Asian tiger mosquito, Aedes albopictus, is an anthropophilic aggressive daytime-biting nuisance and an efficient vector of certain arboviruses and filarial nematodes. Over the last 30 years, this species has spread rapidly through human travel and commerce from its native tropical forests of Asia to every continent except Antarctica. In 2011, a population of Asian tiger mosquito (Aedes albopictus) was discovered in Los Angeles (LA) County, California. To determine the probable origin of this invasive species, the genetic structure of the population was compared against 11 populations from the United States and abroad, as well as preserved specimens from a 2001 introduction into California using the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase 1 (CO1) gene. A total of 66 haplotypes were detected among samples and were divided into three main groups. Aedes albopictus collected in 2001 and 2011 from LA County were genetically related and similar to those from Asia but distinct from those collected in the eastern and southeastern United States. In view of the high genetic similarities between the 2001 and 2011 LA samples, it is possible that the 2011 population represents in part the descendants of the 2001 introduction. There remains an imperative need for improved surveillance and control strategies for this species.

Aedes albopictus, the Asian tiger mosquito, continues expanding its geographic range and involvement in mosquito-borne diseases such as chikungunya and dengue. Vector control programs rarely attempt to suppress this diurnal species with an ultra-low volume (ULV) adulticide because for maximum efficacy applications are conducted at night. During 2009-2011 we performed experimental nighttime applications of a novel adulticide (DUET®) against field populations of Ae. albopictus within an urban site composed of approximately 1,000 parcels (home and yard) in northeastern USA. Dual applications at mid label rate of the adulticide spaced one or two days apart accomplished significantly higher control (85.0 ± 5.4% average reduction) than single full rate applications (73.0 ± 5.4%). Our results demonstrate that nighttime ULV adulticiding is effective in reducing Ae. albopictus abundance and highlight its potential for use as part of integrated pest management programs and during disease epidemics when reducing human illness is of paramount importance.