Search

The proportion of deaths attributable to cancer is rising, and malignant neoplasms have become the leading cause of death in high-income countries. Obesity and diabetes are now recognized as risk factors for several types of malignancies, especially endometrial, colorectal, and postmenopausal breast cancers. Mechanisms implicated include disturbances in lipid-derived hormone secretion, sex steroids biosynthesis, hyperinsulinemia, and chronic inflammation. Intentional weight loss is associated with a mitigation of risk for obesity-related cancers, a phenomenon observed specially with bariatric surgery. The impact of pharmacological interventions for obesity and diabetes is not uniform: while metformin seems to protect against cancer, other agents such as lorcaserin may increase the risk of malignancies. However, these interpretations must be carefully considered, since most data stem from bias-prone observational studies, and high-quality randomized controlled trials with appropriate sample size and duration are needed to achieve definite conclusions. In this review, we outline epidemiological and pathophysiological aspects of the relationship between obesity, diabetes, and malignancies. We also highlight pieces of evidence regarding treatment effects on cancer incidence in these populations.

Chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting has a major adverse impact in câncer patients, and this has led to considerable research in this field. There are a great number of clinical trials focusing on acute emesis and, significant strides forward have heen made with this problem. However, the pathophysiology of delayed emesis is still poorly understood and the control of it remains a therapeutic challenge. To prevent and treat chemotherapy induced nausea and vomiting, a wide variety of drugs is available. In order to prevent acute emesis induced by highly emetogenic chemotherapy, the use of both 5-HT3 receptor antagonist plus dexamethasone is the choice. For delayed emesis, metoclopramide plus dexamethasone should be considered for those patients with satisfactory control of acute episodes and for those with poor acute emesis control, the combination of 5-HT3 receptor antagonist plus dexamethasone should be used. The prevention of acute emesis induced by moderately emetogenic chemotherapy involves the use of a combination of a 5-HT3 receptor antagonist plus dexainethasone, while more well-conducted studies are necessary to define the best anti-emetic therapy for delayed emesis, since the is no study comparing the different treatments in a proper manner. Náuseas e vômitos decorrentes de quimioterapia têm um impacto negativo importante em pacientes com câncer, mas isso acabou levando a um considerável avanço em pesquisa neste campo. A grande maioria dos estudos se concentra no tratamento da emese aguda, onde se fez grandes avanços; por outro lado, a fisiopatologia da emese tardia não é tão bem entendida, constituindo-se num desafio terapêutico. A literatura mostra que o tratamento para emese aguda induzida por regimes altamente emetogênicos é a associação de antagonistas do receptor 5-HT3 mais dexametasona. Na emese tardia, metoclopramida e dexametasona é o tratamento de escolha para pacientes com bom controle dos episódios de emese prévio. Para aqueles com mau controle, sugere-se antagonistas do receptor 5-HT3 associados a dexametasona. Na prevenção da emese aguda induzida por quimioterápicos moderadamente emetogênicos, o regime mais efetivo é a combinação dos antagonistas dos receptores 5-HT3 e dexametasona. Na emese tardia, há a necessidade de mais estudos, pois até agora, não existem estudos comparando claramente os diversos tratamentos entre si.

OBJECTIVES: Recent studies have suggested that sentinel lymph nodes (SLN) are the first nodes that receive drainage from breast cancer. Studies also indicate that SLN biopsy is a safe alternative staging procedure for patients with breast cancer. In this sense, it is necessary to carry out lymphatic mapping in order to identify SLNs and prove that they are reliable predictors of axillary lymph node status, based on the pathologic study of SLN and compared with the results of axillary lymph node dissection (LND).MATERIALS AND METHODS: From April 1999 through August 2000, 50 patients with breast cancer were staged with sentinel lymph node biopsy followed by complete axillary dissection. Three techniques for mapping SLN were used: lymphoscintigraphy with Technetium Tc99m-labeled dextran and, during the transoperative period, detection of radioactivity with gamma probe counter and, simultaneously, blue dye for stained lymphatic ducts or nodes. The study of SLN was carried out using frozen sections and using hematoxilyn and eosin staining (H&E) and cytokeratin immunohistochemical staining (IHC). The LN were studied by standard pathologic H&E.RESULTS: These patients had a mean age of 56.4 years for a median of 57 years; the mean tumor size was 2.3 cm in diameter for a median 2.0 cm. An average 2.2 (range: 1-5) SLN were excised per patient; and 20.6 was the average of axillary lymph nodes excised. H&E identified 20 patients (40%) with SLN metastasis (SLN+) and 30 patients (60%) with metastasis-free SLN (SLN-). IHC in these 30 patients showed an additional 5 SLN positive patients. Thus, the IHC patient-SLN-conversion was of 17% (5/30). The increased rate of SLN+ was correlated with tumors greater than 2.0 cm. The increased incidence in nonsentinel nodes occurred with primary tumors greater than 2.0 cm and patients aged 50 years or less. The prevalence of SLN+ was of 42% according to H&E. Sensitivity was of 95.2%, negative predictive value of 96.6%, and accuracy of 98%.CONCLUSIONS: Results indicated that the method is reliable with 2% false-negatives (1/50) when used together with H&E. IHC indicated an upstaging of 17%, most of which were patients with micrometastasis (tumor less than 2 mm). The accuracy of SLN as a predictor of axillary lymph node was 98%. This suggests that axillary lymph node dissection may not be necessary in patients with metastasis free SLN., OBJETIVOS: Estudos recentes relatam que o câncer de mama drena para o primeiro linfonodo da bacia linfática regional, chamado linfonodo sentinela (LNS), e que a biópsia do LNS é uma alternativa segura para o estadiamento das pacientes com câncer de mama. Para isto, é necessário o mapeamento linfático que possibilita identificar o LNS e provar que ele é preditivo do status axilar, baseado no estudo patológico do LNS e comparado com o resultado da dissecção axilar total (LNT).MATERIAIS E MÉTODOS: De abril de 1999 a agosto de 2000, 50 pacientes com câncer de mama foram estadiadas com a biópsia do LNS, seguida de dissecção dos demais linfonodos axilares. Os autores usaram 3 técnicas para o mapeamento do LNS: linfocintilografia com tecnésio-99 m ligado ao dextran 500 e, no transoperatório, a detecção da radioatividade gama com o aparelho manual Gama Probe e, simultaneamente, o corante linfático Bleu Patent V que cora os ductos aferentes até o LNS. O estudo do LNS foi realizado em secções por congelação e depois em material fixado e embebido em parafina pelas técnicas de coloração com hematoxilina e eosina (H&E) e de imuno-histoquímica (IHQ) para citoqueratina. Os não-LNS foram estudados pela H&E.RESULTADOS: A idade média das pacientes desta amostra foi 56,4 anos e mediana de 57 anos; a média do maior diâmetro tumoral foi 2,3 cm, com mediana 2,0 cm; a média de LNS dissecado foi 2,2 (limites: 1 a 5) e a média de toda axila foi 20,6 linfonodos, com mediana de 20, excisados por paciente. A H&E identificou 20 (40%) pacientes com metástase no LNS (LNS+) e 30 pacientes livres de metástase no LNS (LNS-). Com a IHQ, estas 30 pacientes mostraram um adicional de 5 com LNS+, em uma conversão de 17% (5 / 30). A taxa aumentada de ocorrência de LNS+ se correlacionou com tumores maiores do que 2,0 cm e a incidência aumentada nos nãoLNS ocorreu nos tumores maiores do que 2,0 cm e nas pacientes mais jovens, com idade até 50 anos. A prevalência de LNS+ foi de 42% pela H&E. A sensibilidade do método foi 95,2%, o valor preditivo negativo de 96,6 % e a acuracidade de 98%. CONCLUSÕES: O método se mostrou factível com 2% de falso-negativos, com a H&E, sendo que há um acréscimo de estádio patológico de 17% com a IHQ e a maioria com apenas micrometástase, definida como a presença de tumor com tamanho de até 2 mm. Há previsão de acerto de 98% e isto sugere que a dissecção axilar total, em paciente sem metástase em LNS, deverá brevemente ser abandonada, na dependência da experiência do cirurgião que realiza a biópsia do LNS