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Many museums deal with socio-scientific issues--meaning topics with multiple perspectives and ongoing research, such as climate change, vaccinations, or livestock farming. As important and trusted sources of science education, museums can play a critical role in raising awareness about such issues. They tend to highlight the various perspectives on the topic and thereby are able to provide a balanced and impartial information presentation. Visitors are therefore confronted both with views that correspond to their own beliefs and with views that contradict their beliefs and are supported in developing an informed opinion on the respective topic. In our study, we used an experimental exhibition on the topic "animal husbandry" to investigate the extent to which, first, an exhibition visit in general and, second, how different picture captions affect knowledge acquisition and interest. We chose a between-subjects design with the factor conflict framing through picture captions. Whereas one group visited an exhibition in which the picture captions were formulated neutrally, another group read picture captions that emphasized the existing conflict. A control group, which did not visit the exhibition at all, allowed us to examine the general effect of the exhibition. As dependent variables, we chose interest and knowledge acquisition as common instruments of educational visitor research. However, we went one step further and used an innovative instrument: visitors' argument repertoire. We found that visiting the exhibition led to higher interest, knowledge acquisition, and a more balanced argument repertoire. Varying the captions had no significant effect. Implications and limitations are discussed.

Based on previous research on multimedia learning and text comprehension, an eye-tracking study was conducted to examine the influence of audio text coherence on visual attention and memory in a multimedia learning situation with a focus on picture comprehension. Audio text coherence was manipulated by the type of LDI structure, that is, whether localization, description, and interpretation followed in immediate succession for each pictorial detail or whether localizations and description of details were separated from their interpretation. Results show that with a LDI integrated structure compared to a LDI separated structure the referred-to picture elements were fixated longer during interpretation parts, and linkages between descriptions and interpretations were better recalled and recognized. The effects on recall and recognition of linkages were fully mediated by fixation times. This pattern of results can be explained by an interplay between audio text coherence and dual coding processes. It points out the importance of local coherence and the provision of localization information in audio explanations as well as visual attention to allow for dual coding processes that can be used to better attribute meaning to picture details. Practical implications for the design of educational videos, audio texts on websites, and audio guides are discussed.

Based on the knowledge generation model for visual analytics including uncertainty propagation and human trust building (Sacha et al. 2016), the cognitive theory of multimedia learning (Mayer, 2014), the multimedia principle (Butcher, 2014), and previous studies on the effects of different uncertainty visualization styles, an integrated theoretical approach is proposed to examine the influence of different degrees of information uncertainty and different uncertainty visualization styles on processing pictures of two archeological reconstructions with accompanying audio explanations presented in a multimedia learning environment. A 4 × 3 design with condition (without uncertainty visualization vs. stop light colors vs. geometric contrast vs. both uncertainty visualizations) as the between-subjects factor and uncertainty value (uncertain vs. medium vs. certain) as the within-subject factor was used. The results showed that appearance of certain content, its uncertainty values, and their verbal scientific justifications were remembered better than uncertain ones. Furthermore, stop light colors enhanced the memory of uncertainty values compared to no uncertainty visualization and were better understood, discriminated, and transferred than geometric contrast. Geometric contrast decreased the memory of the appearance of uncertain architectural elements compared to no uncertainty visualization and was better than stop light colors regarding the memory of the appearance of certain architectural elements. The study integrates and extends existing theories by showing that certain contents are processed with higher priority than uncertain contents and that the multimedia effect is also valid for metainformation such as the uncertainties of contents. Finally, recommendations for designing learning material including uncertainty visualizations are given.

Based on theories of multimedia learning, the present study investigated whether the haptic sense serves as an additional channel to enhance the learning experience and learning outcomes. We therefore set up an experimental exhibition with two showrooms. In the first showroom, the sensory access of the participants to the exhibition objects was systematically varied in a 2 × 2 design with the between-subjects factors vision and haptics. While one group of participants could touch and see the objects, others could either only see or only touch them. The fourth group of participants found a showroom without objects. To address the auditory access, all participants were provided with information about each object via an audio guide. In the second showroom, further information was presented using posters. This showroom was the same for every participant. We aimed to investigate whether the haptic experience in the first showroom served as a motivator to engage further with the topic. The participants filled out questionnaires before visiting the first showroom, after visiting the first showroom, and after visiting the second showroom. To investigate the differences between the experimental groups on different outcomes, a memory test, a knowledge test, and various motivational-affective scales were used. The long-term effects of the information presentation were measured after 3 weeks. We found an advantage for recalling the objects and a heightened negative affect due to the haptic experience. Implications and further directions for this research will be discussed.

Events and activities consist not only of sequences of individual actions, but also they form hierarchies comprising chains of low-level actions grouped together to form higher level activities. Therefore, observers face the task of not only segmenting a continuous event stream into discrete units, but also processing these units on an appropriate level of aggregation. In 3 experiments, we show that for events observed in an incomplete, piecemeal manner, the temporal extension of event gaps influences the level of hierarchy at which an observer processes the presented event (Experiments 1a and 1b) and that the level of hierarchy is also transferred to an anticipated subsequent event (Experiment 2). Participants viewed film clips showing everyday activities with short or long temporal gaps between the successive shots presenting different aspects of the same activity. The participants' levels of processing were captured via the cued recall of their descriptions of what they had seen in the film clip or via the formulations they used when describing what they expected to happen next. Our findings suggest an extended model of event cognition: Viewers aim to represent events continuously and therefore extrapolate in the case of gaps by shifting to higher levels of description.

Two experiments investigated the effects of an instructional video's setting on learners' retention and application of the video content. Experiment 1 explored competing hypotheses based on theoretical assumptions about whether an authentic setting would serve as a distraction or as a cue for the instructor's expertise. Participants (N = 59) watched a video about floral diagrams and floral formulas that was either shot in a greenhouse (authentic setting) or in front of a white wall (neutral setting). Results showed a beneficial effect of the authentic setting on retention, but not on the application of the video content. Experiment 2 aimed to replicate and extend these findings by investigating whether reinstating the authentic setting as a contextual cue during the test phase would further improve test performance. After watching a video that was either shot in an authentic or a neutral setting, participants (N = 149) worked on the retention and application test while a screenshot of the authentic or the neutral setting was presented as a background. Contrary to our expectations, the effect of setting on retention did not replicate and there was no evidence for context effects, despite using the same learning materials and a comparable sample as in Experiment 1. Findings are discussed with regard to potential boundary conditions.

Multimedia learning scenarios in which a picture is the main focus often use combinations of verbal and visual cueing. Based on models of picture processing and multimedia learning, the present study examined the effect of verbal and visual cueing on two basic aspects of pictorial learning: retention and localization of pictorial elements. Videos of three paintings were presented with verbal cueing (naming of pictorial elements), either alone or in combination with visual frames (explicit cues) or zoom-ins (implicit cues), in a 2 × 3 × 3 mixed design (n = 86) with the factors verbal cueing (uncued vs. cued elements, within-subjects) × visual cueing (no vs. explicit vs. implicit, between-subjects) × film (Mantegna vs. Rubens vs. Marsh, within-subjects). The three films were used to check whether our results are generalizable across different pictorial contents. The retention of pictorial elements was measured by open questions, and the localization of the pictorial elements was measured by asking the participants to place picture snippets at the correct location on an area representing the dimensions of the respective painting. The combination of verbal and visual cueing increased the difference between the cued and the less well retained uncued elements and compensated a disadvantage of verbal cueing for localization performance. This was compensated by both types of visual cueing. Regarding retention and localization, explicit and implicit cueing were equally effective. The study provides a differentiated insight into the interplay of verbal and visual cueing regarding cognitive processing in multimedia learning scenarios in which pictures are the main learning focus.

Previous research has demonstrated that cognitive offloading (i.e., externalizing mental processes) is useful for immediate problem solving. However, long-term effects of cognitive offloading on subsequent problem solving without offloading are remarkably understudied. Our main goal was to investigate the effects of representation control (i.e., adjusting the format of the representation to task requirements) on incidental procedural learning in an information extraction task with interactive visualizations. More specifically, we tested how the availability of representation control for solving tasks in a practice phase affects procedural learning measured in a testing phase in which representation control is no longer available. In both phases, we explored time on task as well as proportion correct as proxies of task performance and analyzed how often participants used representation control. We conducted three experiments in which participants could modify and reorganize information displays in the practice phase, whereas in the testing phase, they had to solve equivalent and near transfer problems without this offloading opportunity. We show that representation control is beneficial for immediate task solution, particularly for problems that require a spatial transformation. This benefit was more pronounced for automated (i.e., system-controlled) types of control (Experiment 3). In contrast, in subsequent problem solving without representation control (up to 24 hr later), participants who had been using representation control previously fell back to the level of an untrained baseline condition (Experiments 1 and 2). However, the detrimental effect of representation control was confined to equivalent tasks and did not generalize to a near transfer task.

Previous research from in and outside museums suggests that the haptic exploration of surfaces and objects have various educational benefits and can positively influence the museum visit experience. However, there is still a need for more research on the potential effects of object handling on museum learning, especially in science museums. The present study attempts to fill this research gap by investigating differences in museum visitors' science learning when presenting them with photos of objects, real objects, or objects that can be handled. We used a multi-criteria approach in which we examined both cognitive and motivational-affective aspects. We found that the participants who were allowed to haptically explore the exhibition's objects showed a higher recollection of the objects and accompanying text topics and reported a higher perceived autonomy compared to the participants in the other two experimental conditions. Unexpectedly, for situational interest as well as for positive and negative affect, the participants in the photo-condition reported higher values than the participants in the other two conditions. Implications for instructional uses of tangible objects and further directions for research are discussed.

Collaborative spatial problem solving is an important yet not thoroughly examined task. Participants navigatedindividually and in dyads through virtual cities of varying complexity. They only saw the environment part visible from theircurrent location from a bird’s eye view map perspective. We recorded missed target locations, overall trajectory length andsearch time per person until self-indicating whole coverage. Our results show a general increase in missed locations, trajectorylength, and search time with the complexity of the environment. These increases differed due to individual and collaborativesearch. For complex, but not for simple environments individual participants navigated shorter distances, finished earlier, butalso missed more target locations than when searching the same environments in collaboration. These results indicate that incomplex environments collaborative search is less error prone than individual search, but takes longer. Such initial findings willconstrain future theorizing about collaborative spatial problem solving.

The article explores the impact of digital technologies on autobiographical remembering and proposes the AMEDIA-Model as a framework for understanding this process. It highlights the ways in which individuals use digital resources to encode, curate, and retrieve memories, and emphasizes the dynamic and reconstructive nature of remembering. The article acknowledges both the positive and negative effects of incorporating high-tech external resources in memory ecologies and calls for further empirical research in this area. It also discusses the role of feedback loops, the social dimension of remembering, interindividual differences, and the need for interdisciplinary cooperation in studying autobiographical remembering in the digital age. [Extracted from the article]

Recent technological developments have led to an increased density of recorded life episodes. To understand how creating and sharing such immense amounts of data shapes the way individuals remember their past, we propose a model for autobiographical memory in the digital age (AMEDIA-Model) that systematizes the existing literature and sketches avenues for future research. The model views autobiographical remembering in the digital age as the result of the iterative process of combining information stored in the mind and information stored in the environment using high-tech applications. Moreover, the way autobiographical memories are (re-)constructed crucially depends on the way the information has been encoded and curated: Autobiographical remembering in the digital age is not a uniform process but is fundamentally shaped by the technology and the data that is being used. The AMEDIA-Model offers a framework for understanding technology-mediated human cognition in the twenty-first century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present study, we investigated the role of digital zoom as a tool for directing attention while looking at visual learning material. In particular, we analyzed whether minimal digital zoom functions similarly to a rhetorical device by cueing mental zooming of attention accordingly. Participants were presented either static film clips, film clips with minimal zoom-ins, or film clips with minimal zoom-outs while eye movements were recorded. We hypothesized that minimal zoom-ins should lead to more gaze coherence, to longer dwell times as an indicator of more elaborative processing, and to fewer transitions as an indicator of less mental integration. Zoom-outs, on the other hand, were expected to have opposite effects. Results showed that zoom-ins increase gaze coherence and dwell times on the center parts of the depictions while decreasing transitions of pictorial elements from the center and the context areas. In contrast, patterns of results from zoom-outs and static presentations were similar to a large degree, indicating that zoom-ins and zoom-outs do not operate in a complementary fashion. Theoretical and practical implications of the present results are discussed.

In a series of experiments, we tested a recently proposed hypothesis stating that the degree of alignment between the form of a mental representation resulting from learning with a particular visualization format and the specific requirements of a learning task determines learning performance (task-appropriateness). Groups of participants were required to learn the stroke configuration, the stroke order, or the stroke directions of a set of Chinese pseudocharacters. For each learning task, participants were divided into groups receiving dynamic, static-sequential, or static visualizations. An old/new character recognition task was given at test. The results showed that learning both stroke configuration and stroke order was best with static pictures (Experiments 1 and 2), while there was no reliable difference between the groups for learning stroke direction (Experiment 3). An additional experiment, however, revealed that learning with sequential pictures was superior when testing was carried out with sequential pictures, irrespective of the learning task (Experiment 4). The combined evidence from all experiments speaks against task requirements playing a role in determining the effectiveness of a visualization format. Furthermore, the evidence supports the view that a high degree of congruence between information presented during learning and information presented at test results in better learning (study-test congruence). Implications for instructional design are discussed.