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Recent research in cognitive neuroscience has begun to uncover the processes underlying increasingly complex voluntary behaviours, including learning and decision-making. Partly this success has been possible by progressing from simple experimental tasks to paradigms that incorporate more ecological features. More specifically, the premise is that to understand cognitions and brain functions relevant for real life, we need to introduce some of the ecological challenges that we have evolved to solve. This often entails an increase in task complexity, which can be managed by using computational models to help parse complex behaviours into specific component mechanisms. Here we propose that using computational models with tasks that capture ecologically relevant learning and decision-making processes may provide a critical advantage for capturing the mechanisms underlying symptoms of disease in psychiatry. As a result, it may help develop mechanistic approaches towards diagnosis and treatment. We begin this review by mapping out the basic concepts and models of learning and decision-making. We then move on to consider specific challenges that emerge in realistic environments and describe how they can be captured by tasks. These include changes of context, uncertainty, reflexive/emotional biases, cost-benefit decision-making, and balancing exploration and exploitation. Where appropriate we highlight future or current links to psychiatry. We particularly draw examples from research on clinical depression, a disorder that greatly compromises motivated behaviours in real-life, but where simpler paradigms have yielded mixed results. Finally, we highlight several paradigms that could be used to help provide new insights into the mechanisms of psychiatric disease.

The primary goal of this thesis was the understanding of the cognitive and computational mechanisms of reward and effort guided processing and their change in depression and commonly used/putative treatments. In chapter 2, I developed a new paradigm that allowed me to examine the neural basis of concurrent learning about rewards and effort in a complex, naturalistic environment. Measuring brain activity using functional magnetic resonance imaging, I proposed a prefrontal cortical mechanism for overcoming behavioural biases generated by irrelevant reward features (Scholl et al., 2015). In chapter 3, I used this paradigm to measure the effects of prolonged administration of a commonly used antidepressant, a serotonin re-uptake inhibitor, which has previously been hypothesized to enhance learning and neural plasticity. I found that it increased neural learning signals for both reward and effort in a widespread network of brain areas, suggesting a general learning enhancing effect (Scholl et al., under review). In chapter 4, I measured whether a putative novel treatment for depression, the partial NMDA agonist d-cycloserine, could also influence learning. While I found this not to be the case, it led to a marked improvement in how participants integrated the available information to make decisions (Scholl et al., 2014). In chapter 5, I tested how these different aspects of reward-guided behaviour, some of which were changed in my pharmacological manipulation, are related to changes in depression. We found that dysphoric participants did not differ from healthy controls in how quickly they learnt appetitive or aversive/effortful information. However, when making decisions they used this learnt information less than healthy controls to determine their decisions. Together, these studies revealed that complex decisions require additional cognitive and neural mechanisms that go beyond those seen in the simplest learning tasks. These diverse mechanisms can be computationally teased apart, rely on different neural systems and can thus be influenced separately. Lastly, we found that common treatments of depression did not necessarily target the same mechanisms affected by depression, suggesting potential new avenues for new treatments.

This unique Feature article comprises a collage of contributions submitted by family and consumer sciences (FCS) practitioners from around the world (also called home economics, human ecology, and human sciences). As Interim Editor (this is my last issue), I reached out to FCS/home economists from all generations (Millennial, Generation X, and Boomers) and asked them to share their thoughts on the future of the profession. Their ideas (represented in their own words) are showcased here. May their musings stimulate your thoughts about ensuring our future. We have a responsibility to future-proof the profession and the discipline, which entails anticipating future developments so actions can be taken now to minimize negative consequences and seize opportunities

Background: Intensive physical load can damage epi-/apophyseal growth. Osgood-Schlatter disease is a well-known and sport-associated overuse injury of the tibial tuberosity apophysis. Long-lasting load-associated pain and a reduced ability to play sports can be the consequence. Aim of the Study: The aim of this study was to analyse the safety and effectiveness of extracorporeal shock wave therapy (ESWT) for recalcitrant Osgood-Schlatter disease. Patients and Methods: 14 adolescent patients, median age 14 (13.2-14.7) years, suffering from recalcitrant Osgood-Schlatter disease (16 symptomatic knees) were treated with radial extracorporeal shock waves. The nine boys, median age 14 (13.5-15.0) years and the five girls, median age 12 (10.8-15.2) were retrospectively followed up 5.6 (3.4-6.7) years later using the disease specific VISA-P-G questionnaire which is validated for jumper's knee. Results: At follow up the median VISA-P-G score was 100 (82.9-100.9). Twelve of 16 knees (75%) reached 100 out of 100 VISA-P-G points. Four patients changed their sports activity due to persisting problems at the distal patellar tendon insertion. Four knees had persisting tibial tuberosity pain when playing sport. Pain induced by activities of daily living (stair climbing) was stated in two cases. No side effects or long-term complications were reported. Conclusions: This pilot study demonstrates that radial ESWT is a safe and promising treatment for adolescent athletes with recalcitrant Osgood-Schlatter disease

International audience; The sheep nose bot fly, Oestrus ovis L. (Diptera: Oestridae) is the causal agent of a very common cavitary myiasis affecting sheep and goat hosts worldwide. We reviewed the biology of the parasitic (feeding larvae) and free (non-feeding intrapuparial and adult) living phases as related to individual intrinsic and environmental factors. Temperature is the main environmental factor regulating the life cycle of this organism during both the parasitic and free phases. First-stage larvae are thought to be responsible for monitoring environmental cues inside the host nasal passages. By contrast, second and thirdstage larvae accumulate nutrient body reserves in order to support the intrapuparial and adult periods. Based on literature, this paper reports the first life table for an O. ovis population. Under natural conditions, the rate of population growth was 1.25 per generation, which indicates a great capacity of populations to recover from internal and external adverse factors. Interfering with water and fat accumulation during the parasitic growth phase of this organism may be a promising new approach for designing control measures.; Oestrus ovis L. (Diptera: Oestridae) est un parasite cosmopolite responsable d’une myiase des cavités nasales et des sinus frontaux du mouton et de la chèvre. Les particularités biologiques des stades parasites qui s’alimentent et des stades libres qui ne s’alimentent pas (pupe et adulte) sont en étroite relation avec des facteurs individuels intrinsèques et des facteurs environnementaux. La température est le principal facteur environnemental régulant le cycle évolutif d’O. ovis aussi bien pendant sa vie parasitaire que pendant sa vie libre. Les larves du premier âge jouent un rôle important dans le contrôle des réactions de l’hôte pendant leur séjour dans les cavités nasales. En revanche, les larves du second et du troisième âge accumulent des nutriments corporels en vue de la phase pupale et de la vie adulte. En s’appuyant sur la littérature, cette synthèse récapitule les caractéristiques biologiques des populations d’O. ovis. Dans les conditions naturelles, la croissance de la population est de 1,25 par génération ce qui montre une grande capacité à récupérer face aux facteurs délétères internes et externes. Pour l’avenir, une voie originale de lutte serait d’interférer avec le métabolisme de l’eau et l’accumulation des réserves lipidiques dans les larves perturbant ainsi le stockage des réserves destinées aux stades libres qui ne s’alimentent pas.

International audience; The sheep nose bot fly, Oestrus ovis L. (Diptera: Oestridae) is the causal agent of a very common cavitary myiasis affecting sheep and goat hosts worldwide. We reviewed the biology of the parasitic (feeding larvae) and free (non-feeding intrapuparial and adult) living phases as related to individual intrinsic and environmental factors. Temperature is the main environmental factor regulating the life cycle of this organism during both the parasitic and free phases. First-stage larvae are thought to be responsible for monitoring environmental cues inside the host nasal passages. By contrast, second and thirdstage larvae accumulate nutrient body reserves in order to support the intrapuparial and adult periods. Based on literature, this paper reports the first life table for an O. ovis population. Under natural conditions, the rate of population growth was 1.25 per generation, which indicates a great capacity of populations to recover from internal and external adverse factors. Interfering with water and fat accumulation during the parasitic growth phase of this organism may be a promising new approach for designing control measures.; Oestrus ovis L. (Diptera: Oestridae) est un parasite cosmopolite responsable d’une myiase des cavités nasales et des sinus frontaux du mouton et de la chèvre. Les particularités biologiques des stades parasites qui s’alimentent et des stades libres qui ne s’alimentent pas (pupe et adulte) sont en étroite relation avec des facteurs individuels intrinsèques et des facteurs environnementaux. La température est le principal facteur environnemental régulant le cycle évolutif d’O. ovis aussi bien pendant sa vie parasitaire que pendant sa vie libre. Les larves du premier âge jouent un rôle important dans le contrôle des réactions de l’hôte pendant leur séjour dans les cavités nasales. En revanche, les larves du second et du troisième âge accumulent des nutriments corporels en vue de la phase pupale et de la vie adulte. En s’appuyant sur la littérature, cette synthèse récapitule les caractéristiques biologiques des populations d’O. ovis. Dans les conditions naturelles, la croissance de la population est de 1,25 par génération ce qui montre une grande capacité à récupérer face aux facteurs délétères internes et externes. Pour l’avenir, une voie originale de lutte serait d’interférer avec le métabolisme de l’eau et l’accumulation des réserves lipidiques dans les larves perturbant ainsi le stockage des réserves destinées aux stades libres qui ne s’alimentent pas.

Background: The prevalence and socioeconomic burden of type 2 diabetes (T2DM) and associated co-morbidities are rising worldwide. Aims: This guideline provides evidence-based recommendations for preventing T2DM. Methods: A European multidisciplinary consortium systematically reviewed the evidence on the effectiveness of screening and interventions for T2DM prevention using SIGN criteria. Results: Obesity and sedentary lifestyle are the main modifiable risk factors. Age and ethnicity are non-modifiable risk factors. Case-finding should follow a step-wise procedure using risk questionnaires and oral glucose tolerance testing. Persons with impaired glucose tolerance and/or fasting glucose are at high-risk and should be prioritized for intensive intervention. Interventions supporting lifestyle changes delay the onset of T2DM in high-risk adults (number-needed-to-treat: 6.4 over 1.84.6 years). These should be supported by inter-sectoral strategies that create health promoting environments. Sustained body weight reduction by 5% lowers risk. Currently metformin, acarbose and orlistat can be considered as second-line prevention options. The population approach should use organized measures to raise awareness and change lifestyle with specific approaches for adolescents, minorities and disadvantaged people. Interventions promoting lifestyle changes are more effective if they target both diet and physical activity, mobilize social support, involve the planned use of established behaviour change techniques, and provide frequent contacts. Cost-effectiveness analysis should take a societal perspective. Conclusions: Prevention using lifestyle modifications in high-risk individuals is cost-effective and should be embedded in evaluated models of care. Effective prevention plans are predicated upon sustained government initiatives comprising advocacy, community support, fiscal and legislative changes, private sector engagement and continuous media communication. © Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart - New York.