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There is a lack of tests available for assessing sign language proficiency among L2 learners. We have therefore developed a sign repetition test, SignRepL2, with a specific focus on the phonological features of signs. This paper describes the two phases of developing this test. In the first phase, content was developed in the form of 50 items with sentence lengths between one and three signs. Then, when a period of teaching revealed a ceiling effect in the first version, a second version was developed with 40 items varying between one and four signs. Test scores revealed increasing proficiency in Swedish Sign Language during education, and that mouth actions have a lower degree of accuracy than manual parameters., Det råder stor brist på bedömningsmaterial när det gäller färdigheter i svenskt teckenspåk för andraspåksinlärare. Mot denna bakgrund har vi utvecklat ett teckenspåkstest, SignRepL2, som har ett särskilt fokus på teckens fonologiska egenskaper. Den här artikeln beskriver hur testet har utvecklats i två faser. I den första fasen tog vi fram 50 objekt, bestående av meningar av varierande längd; 30 enstaka tecken och 10 meningar med två respektive tre tecken. Testet implementerades och användes för att testa teckenspåksutvecklingen hos studenter som studerade svenskt teckenspåk som andraspåk. Då konstaterades att testet inte räckte till eftersom en taknivå uppnåddes efter en tids undervisning. Därför vidareutvecklades testet i en andra fas. I denna fas reducerades antalet enstaka tecken till 10 och 10 meningar innehållande fyra tecken vardera lades till så att testet istället kom att bestå av 40 objekt med mer varierande meningslängd. Resultaten fån testet visade hur studenternas kunskaper i svenskt teckenspåk utvecklades under utbildningen. Dessutom konstaterades att icke-manuella munrörelser är svårare att producera korrekt jämfört med tecknens manuella parametrar.

This presentation will highlight and discuss the complex situation when deaf adults who are emergent readers (i.e., with limited or no previous knowledge of print literacy) are expected to learn two new languages in parallel: Swedish Sign Language (STS) and Swedish. Swedish appears primarily in its written form for this group, and therefore, they, apart from learning a new language, also have to develop reading and writing skills. In the hearing context, such learning of print literacy in adulthood is a process that is proven difficult by research (e.g., Bigelow & Vinogradov 2011). In addition, literature on literacy development of deaf children, frequently report obstacles with the learning of print literacy for many students even if many become successful readers (e.g., Hoffmeister & Caldwell-Harris 2014). Our study indicates that this is even more complicated for adult deaf emergent readers.Data comes from ethnographically created video recordings of classroom interaction and interviews with teachers and participants representing this group. The analysis reveals that while the migrants successively learn basic STS skills that allow them to interact with other deaf people in the personal domain and communicate their needs, learning Swedish takes an entirely different path. The migrants struggle with learning basic reading and writing skills, vocabulary, and grammar. Furthermore, although the instruction is highly repetitive, using STS to explain and connect signs with written equivalents, it is unstructured and sprawled without a clear red thread. The teachers testify in interviews that it seems almost impossible for the emergent readers to learn Swedish on a level good enough to cope in Swedish society, which, in turn, puts them in a very vulnerable position. The presentation will conclude with a discussion connecting the results to the Crip Linguistic framework and mark the importance of further research on adult deaf emergent readers., Mulder

In the last decade, Sweden has received many deaf migrants with very diverse linguistic and educational backgrounds. When arriving in Sweden, they are expected to learn Swedish Sign Language (STS) and Swedish. For this study, we have used data from project Mulder, a four-year research project that aims to generate knowledge about deaf migrants' multilingual situation in Sweden. In this article, we describe how adult education for deaf migrants is organised in Sweden and examine how translanguaging practices are formed there. We found that translanguaging is a natural and common part of the multilingual classrooms, but also that the opportunities to translanguage depend highly on the individual's repertoires and whether particular individuals have one or more languages in common or have a lingua franca. We also found that translanguaging is not always helpful in learning contexts if the teachers are not conscious and insightful when they mix languages.

This article highlight and discuss the complex situation when deaf adults who are emergent readers learn Swedish Sign Language (STS) and Swedish in parallel. As Swedish appears primarily in its written form, they also have to develop reading and writing skills. Study data comes from ethnographically created video recordings of classroom interaction and interviews with teachers and participants. The analysis reveals that while the migrants successively learn basic STS for interacting with other deaf people, learning Swedish takes a different path. The migrants struggle with learning basic reading and writing skills, vocabulary, and grammar. Furthermore, the instruction is highly repetitive, but unstructured and sprawled, using STS to explain and connect signs with written equivalents. The teachers testify in interviews that it seems very difficult for the emergent readers to learn Swedish on a level good enough to cope in Swedish society, which, in turn, puts them in a vulnerable position., Mulder, Döva nyanländas flerspråkiga situation i Sverige

This presentation will highlight and discuss the complex situation when deaf adults who are emerging readers (i.e., with limited or no previous knowledge of print literacy) are expected to learn two new languages in parallel: Swedish Sign Language (STS) and Swedish. Swedish appears primarily in its written form for this group, and therefore, they, apart from learning a new language, also have to develop reading and writing skills. In the hearing context, such learning of print literacy in adulthood is a process that is proven difficult by research (see, e.g., Bigelow & Vinogradov 2011 for a compilation). In addition, there is a vast amount of literature on the literacy development of deaf children, reporting that some are struggling with the learning of print literacy while others are successful (e.g., Hoffmeister & Caldwell-Harris 2014). Our study indicates that this is even more complicated for adult deaf emerging readers. Sweden is a country that highly values education and literacy skills. All schools are free for children and youths, as are university education and non-formal education provided by folk high schools. Those who grow up in Sweden thus have at least public school education grades (9-10 years), and most also have upper secondary school exams (3-4 years). Furthermore, print literacy skills in school are essential, meaning that a large focus is on reading and writing. In recent years, Sweden has received a large number of migrants, of which many have completely different educational experiences. Despite this, all migrants (regardless of whether they are deaf or hearing) who arrive in Sweden are expected to participate in education with the primary goal of learning Swedish (Fejes 2019). In this presentation, we will present findings from an ongoing multilingual project focusing on adult deaf migrants. As a group, deaf migrants are very heterogeneous regarding linguistic, educational, and social background. Here, we will focus on those deaf migr, Mulder

In second language research, the concept of cross-linguistic influence or transfer has frequently been used to describe the interaction between the first language (L1) and second language (L2) in the L2 acquisition process. However, less is known about the L2 acquisition of a sign language in general and specifically the differences in the acquisition process of L2M2 learners (learners learning a sign language for the first time) and L2M1 learners (signers learning another sign language) from a multimodal perspective. Our study explores the influence of modality knowledge on learning Swedish Sign Language through a descriptive analysis of the sign lexicon in narratives produced by L2M1 and L2M2 learners, respectively. A descriptive mixed-methods framework was used to analyze narratives of adult L2M1 (n = 9) and L2M2 learners (n = 15), with a focus on sign lexicon, i.e., use and distribution of the sign types such as lexical signs, depicting signs (classifier predicates), fingerspelling, pointing, and gestures. The number and distribution of the signs are later compared between the groups. In addition, a comparison with a control group consisting of L1 signers (n = 9) is provided. The results suggest that L2M2 learners exhibit cross-modal cross-linguistic transfer from Swedish (through higher usage of lexical signs and fingerspelling). L2M1 learners exhibits same-modal cross-linguistic transfer from L1 sign languages (through higher usage of depicting signs and use of signs from L1 sign language and international signs). The study suggests that it is harder for L2M2 learners to acquire the modality-specific lexicon, despite possible underlying gestural knowledge. Furthermore, the study suggests that L2M1 learners’ access to modality-specific knowledge, overlapping access to gestural knowledge and iconicity, facilitates faster L2 lexical acquisition, which is discussed from the perspective of linguistic relativity (including modality) and its role in sign L2 acquisiti

Background This study is about reference tracking and the use of semiotic types for reference in adult hearing L2 signers of Swedish Sign Language. Here we study what semiotic types are used within different levels of reference tracking, including new introduction of new referent, maintaining introduction of referent, and reintroduction of referent. Within the field of Second Language Acquisition, reference tracking in spoken L2 learners has been widely studied. A common finding for L2 learners of many spoken languages is that they tend to exhibit over- explicitness in their referring expressions, i.e., using fuller referential forms (e.g., a noun phrase) prior to reduced forms of reference (e.g., a pronoun), especially in maintained reference, in comparison to to L1 speakers. Reference tracking for L2 sign language has earlier been studied for Catalan Sign Language (Bel, Ortells & Morgan, 2014) and American Sign Language (Frederiksen & Mayberry, 2018). While Bel et al. (2014) found evidence for over-explicitness, Frederiksen & Mayberry (2018) found limited evidence. With sign languages’ modality- dependent structures (e.g., similarity in production and spatiality) for referring to expressions in the mind (use of depicting signs and/or constructed action), the acquisition of referring expressions of L2 learners of a sign language adds an interesting dimension as well as for our general understanding of L2 learning in a second modality (see e.g., Schönström, 2021). Data and method The aim of this study was to examine the reference tracking in elicited signed narratives produced by hearing L2 learners based on longitudinal data from the study Swedish Sign Language as L2 Corpus (Mesch & Schönström, 2018). We used retellings of Frog, Where Are You? (Mayer 1969) in two groups, including seven L2 adult signers from the STSC-L2 corpus who had been learning Swedish Sign Language for one year and seven native signers in Swedish Sign Language. The annotati

The processing of a language involves a neural language network including temporal, parietal, and frontal cortical regions. This applies to spoken as well as signed languages. Previous research suggests that spoken language proficiency is associated with resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC) between language regions and other regions of the brain. Given the similarities in neural activation for spoken and signed languages, rsFC-behavior associations should also exist for sign language tasks. In this study, we explored the associations between rsFC and two types of linguistic skills in sign language: phonological processing skill and accuracy in elicited sentence production. Fifteen adult, deaf early signers were enrolled in a resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study. In addition to fMRI data, behavioral tests of sign language phonological processing and sentence reproduction were administered. Using seed-to-voxel connectivity analysis, we investigated associations between behavioral proficiency and rsFC from language-relevant nodes: bilateral inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) and posterior superior temporal gyrus (STG). Results showed that worse sentence processing skill was associated with stronger positive rsFC between the left IFG and left sensorimotor regions. Further, sign language phonological processing skill was associated with positive rsFC from right IFG to middle frontal gyrus/frontal pole although this association could possibly be explained by domain-general cognitive functions. Our findings suggest a possible connection between rsFC and developmental language outcomes in deaf individuals.

This chapter focuses on the validity of tests of second language (L2) signed language learners. Test validity depends on how test developers take the language as well as the modality into consideration and how the test captures natural variation in local signed languages, which impacts the use of tests and interpretation of results. In this chapter, the argument-based approach to validation is used to evaluate claims that test developers make about the uses of tests. A sample of signed language tests for L2 learners is reviewed and discussed. Caution in the extrapolation and making decisions based on test results are discussed. The chapter ends with suggestions about how to evaluate the validity of future L2 signed language tests.

Sign language research is important for our understanding of languages in general and for the impact it has on policy and on the lives of deaf people. There is a need for a sign language proficiency measure, to use as a grouping or continuous variable, both in psycholinguistics and in other sign language research. This article describes the development of a Swedish Sign Language Sentence Repetition Test (STS-SRT) and the evidence that supports the validity of the test’s interpretation and use. The STS-SRT was administered to 44 deaf adults and children, and was shown to have excellent internal reliability (Cronbach’s alpha of 0.915) and inter-rater reliability (Intraclass Correlation Coefficient [ICC] = 0.900, p < .001). A linear mixed model analysis revealed that adults scored 20.2% higher than children, and delayed sign language acquisition were associated with lower scores. As the sign span of sentences increased, participants relied on their implicit linguistic knowledge to scaffold their sentence repetitions beyond rote memory. The results provide reliability and validity evidence to support the use of STS-SRT in research as a measure of STS proficiency.

This paper concerns the acquisition of the sign lexicon in L2 learners of Swedish Sign Language. Sampled data (conversation and narrative retelling) from a longitudinal learner corpus with 16 adult L2 signers was analyzed and compared with data from nine L1 signers. The use of three broad types of signs was analyzed: lexical signs, partly-lexical signs (i.e. depicting signs) and non-lexical signs. The results revealed some differences between L1 and L2 signers, especially with regard to depicting signs. The number of depicting signs used by L2 learners increased over time, approaching the target language use. Qualitatively, we observed differences between L1 and L2 signers in their use of depicting signs, related to handshape choice and sign constructions. We discuss these findings in light of previous research linked to L2 vocabulary as well as the role of gestural knowledge in sign L2 acquisition.

This article deals with L2 acquisition of a sign language, examining in particular the use and acquisition of non-manual mouth actions performed by L2 learners of Swedish Sign Language. Based on longitudinal data from an L2 learner corpus, we describe the distribution, frequency, and spreading patterns of mouth actions in sixteen L2 learners at two time points. The data are compared with nine signers of an L1 control group. The results reveal some differences in the use of mouth actions between the groups. The results are specifically related to the category of mouthing borrowed from spoken Swedish. L2 signers show an increased use of mouthing compared to L1 signers. Conversely, L1 signers exhibit an increased use of reduced mouthing compared with L2 signers. We also observe an increase of adverbial mouth gestures within the L2 group. The results are discussed in relation to previous findings, and within the framework of cross-linguistic influence., From Speech to Sign – learning Swedish Sign Language as a Second Language

This chapter provides insight into the progress and current status of a national sign bilingual program, with a special focus on the linguistic situation. The chapter begins with a historical overview and a description of sign bilingual education in Sweden and how it has changed during the last four decades, due in great part to advancements in hearing technology; i.e., cochlear implantation. Based on semi-structured interviews with teachers of deaf and hard-of-hearing students, the chapter then provides an empirical account of the current linguistic situation of sign bilingual education in Sweden. Approaching this situation from a bilingual perspective sheds some light on the schooling of the new generation of deaf and hard-of-hearing students and shows that the linguistic situation for deaf students has changed. The chapter ends with a discussion of how sign bilingual education in Sweden has shifted from a position of being acclaimed to one of being challenged, driven by various factors that are basically derived from monolingual norms.

When migrants (including refugees and asylum seekers) arrive in Sweden, they must provide reasonsfor their migration to the Swedish Migration Agency in order to obtain a permit. This is done byinterviews, which usually requires either using a common language or through interpreters. However,this is not always possible for deaf migrants. There are deaf people who have grown up with limitedor no access to a language because they cannot hear and learn the spoken language of their familiesand they have not had the opportunity to learn a sign language. Some may also have not received aformal education. The combination of limited or no access to a language and little to no educationalbackground complicates the Agency’s interview process with deaf migrants. This puts deaf migrantsat risk of experiencing social injustice. As an intervention, deaf migrants are offered language educationprograms at adult non-formal education schools (folk high schools). In those schools, themigrants are given the opportunity to learn Swedish Sign Language and Swedish as well as aboutSwedish society. Scientific knowledge regarding (emergent) language learning in deaf adult migrants is almost nonexistent.The Mulder project, which began in 2020, aims to generate knowledge on this topic. Theproject focuses on classroom interaction and teaching in two folk high schools, using an ethnographicapproach. Based on observations as well as interviews with the teachers and migrants, interestingpatterns relating to teaching deaf migrants and the migrants’ language learning have emerged. Ourpresentation will demonstrate and discuss some key findings that can support teachers and improvetheir teaching towards more accessible and equal teaching approaches, not just for this particulargroup. Through development of language instruction, deaf migrants will have greater opportunitiesto argue for their needs and obtain fair treatment., Mulder

This paper deals with the non-manual mouth actions of Swedish Sign Language, Svenskt teckenspråk (STS). Based on data from the Swedish Sign Language Corpus and the Swedish Sign Language as L2 Corpus, we compare the use of mouthings in deaf L1 as well as hearing L2 signers. The use, distribution and frequency of mouthings are explored and described quantitatively and qualitatively. The results reveal some similarities as well as differences in the use of mouthings between the groups. Furthermore, the analysis reveals qualitative differences related to the properties of mouthings i.e. full and reduced mouthings among L1 as well as L2 learners of STS. Challenges of the analysis of mouthings will be discussed.

For students, the classroom setting is vital for learning and development, as are the interactions with other students and teachers. For deaf and hard-of-hearing (DHH) students, particularly the visual environment is of importance. For example, psychological studies have shown that DHH people’s visual attention differs from hearing people’s, particularly regarding things that happen in the periphery (Dye m.fl. 2008, 2009; Loke och Song 1991), and point out that teachers of DHH students have reported that they are impulsive and easily disturbed by things that appear or are ongoing in the classroom or are visible outside. The act of being instructed through a sign language requires visual attention skills because the students have to switch between the teacher and the whiteboard, including PowerPoint slides, pictures, tools, etc., simultaneously. The act is even more complicated in an interpreted classroom setting. Therefore, teachers need to be aware of visual and linguistic prerequisites in order to create an accessible and visually oriented learning environment for DHH students (cf. Holmström & Schönström 2018). However, it seems that many hearing teachers have a lack of knowledge of such visual strategies. In educational settings where the instruction is conducted by deaf teachers, the knowledge of visual strategies, however, appears to be well established, as we will show in this presentation. Building upon data from three different classroom contexts, we have examined the visual strategies used by deaf teachers. The classroom contexts are i) a higher education setting where deaf teachers are instructing DHH students, ii) a higher education setting where deaf teachers are instructing hearing students Swedish Sign Language (STS) as a second language and iii) adult education for deaf migrants where deaf teachers are instructing deaf adults. The analysis shows that deaf teachers use a range of visual strategies in their teaching (i.e., gestures, pointing, chain

Stimulus degradation adds to working memory load during speech processing. We investigated whether this applies to sign processing and, if so, whether the mechanism implicates secondary auditory cortex. We conducted an fMRI experiment where 16 deaf early signers (DES) and 22 hearing non-signers performed a sign-based n-back task with three load levels and stimuli presented at high and low resolution. We found decreased behavioral performance with increasing load and decreasing visual resolution, but the neurobiological mechanisms involved differed between the two manipulations and did so for both groups. Importantly, while the load manipulation was, as predicted, accompanied by activation in the frontoparietal working memory network, the resolution manipulation resulted in temporal and occipital activation. Furthermore, we found evidence of cross-modal reorganization in the secondary auditory cortex: DES had stronger activation and stronger connectivity between this and several other regions. We conclude that load and stimulus resolution have different neural underpinnings in the visual–verbal domain, which has consequences for current working memory models, and that for DES the secondary auditory cortex is involved in the binding of representations when task demands are low.

In recent years there has been a growing interest in sign second language acquisition (SSLA). However, research in this area is sparse. As signed and spoken languages are expressed in different modalities, there is a great potential for broadening our understanding of the mechanisms and the acquisition processes of learning a (second) language through SSLA research. In addition, the application of existing SLA knowledge to sign languages can bring new insights into the generalizability of SLA theories and descriptions, to see whether they hold true for sign languages. In this paper I give a brief overview of sign language and SSLA research, together with insights from the research on iconicity and gestures and its role for SSLA, including examples from my own studies on L2 signers. The paper concludes with a discussion of both the potential and challenges of combining sign language and SLA research, providing some notes towards directions for future research., P16-0371:1

In this chapter, focus lie in translation as a language teaching practice in sign bilingual settings in deaf education. Due to limited or no access to sounds, many deaf pupils learn and use spoken languages primarily in their written form. Thus, in this translation practice, deaf pupils are translating between a written language and a sign language. The chapter focuses on translation practices in language teaching contexts and consider both experiences of using sign language translation as an approach in deaf education, sign language studies and translation studies, as well as (second) language teaching. Some concrete pedagogical examples of the application of translation as a pedagogical approach in sign language-based education at different levels, e.g. syllabus, classroom practice and assessment are provided. The chapter begins with an historical account of research on sign languages, sign language translation, and gives a brief account on the history of deaf education. A summary of key research approaches related to sign bilingual teaching with particular focus on translation as a method are also provided. Furthermore, some practical approaches and methods are presented with concrete examples from a sign bilingual classroom. The chapter ends with a conclusion and discussion about future directions.