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Nodding syndrome (NS) is a poorly understood form of childhood-onset epilepsy that is characterized by the pathognomonic ictal phenomenon of repetitive vertical head drops. To evaluate the underlying ictal neurophysiology, ictal EEG features were evaluated in nine participants with confirmed NS from South Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda and ictal presence of high frequency gamma oscillations on scalp EEG were assessed. Ictal EEG during the head nodding episode predominantly showed generalized slow waves or sharp-and-slow wave complexes followed by electrodecrement. Augmentation of gamma activity (30-70 Hz) was seen during the head nodding episode in all the participants. We confirm that head nodding episodes in persons with NS from the three geographically distinct regions in sub-Saharan Africa share the common features of slow waves with electrodecrement and superimposed gamma activity. ANN NEUROL 2022;92:75-80.

Abstract Background Vasospasm-related delayed cerebral ischemia (DCI) significantly impacts on outcome after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). Erythropoietin (EPO) may reduce the severity of cerebral vasospasm and improve outcome, however, underlying mechanisms are incompletely understood. In this study, the authors aimed to investigate the effect of EPO on cerebral metabolism and brain tissue oxygen tension (PbtO2). Methods Seven consecutive poor grade SAH patients with multimodal neuromonitoring (MM) received systemic EPO therapy (30.000 IU per day for 3 consecutive days) for severe cerebral vasospasm. Cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP), mean arterial blood pressure (MAP), intracranial pressure (ICP), PbtO2 and brain metabolic changes were analyzed during the next 24 hours after each dose given. Statistical analysis was performed with a mixed effects model. Results A total of 22 interventions were analyzed. Median age was 47 years (32–68) and 86 % were female. Three patients (38 %) developed DCI. MAP decreased 2 hours after intervention (P btO2 significantly increased over time (P Conclusions EPO increases PbtO2 in poor grade SAH patients with severe cerebral vasospasm. The effect on outcome needs further investigation.

Abstract Background Experimental murine malaria has been shown to result in significant hearing impairment. Microscopic evaluation of the temporal bones of these animals has revealed regular morphology of the cochlea duct. Furthermore, the known vascular pathologic changes being associated with malaria could not be found. Immunohistochemistry for ICAM1 showed a strong marking in the stria vascularis, indicating a disturbance of the endocochlear potential. The aim of this study was to evaluate the role of apoptosis and the disturbance of the blood labyrinth barrier in the murine malaria associated hearing impairment. Methods The temporal bones of seven mice with cerebral malaria-four with hearing impairment, three without hearing impairment-were evaluated with immunohistochemistry for cleaved caspase 3 to detect apoptosis and connexin 26, a gap junction protein being a cornerstone in the endocochlear potassium recirculation. Furthermore five animals with cerebral malaria were treated with Evans blue prior to sacrification to detect disturbances of the blood labyrinth barrier. Results Cleaved caspase 3 could clearly be detected by immunohistochemistry in the fibrocytes of the spiral ligament, more intensively in animals with hearing impairment, less intensively in those without. Apoptosis signal was equally distributed in the spiral ligament as was the connexin 26 gap junction protein. The Evans blue testing revealed a strong signal in the malaria animals and no signal in the healthy control animals. Conclusion Malfunction of the fibrocytes type 1 in the spiral ligament and disruption of the blood labyrinth barrier, resulting in a breakdown of the endocochlear potential, are major causes for hearing impairment in murine cerebral malaria.

Abstract Background Angiopoietin-1 (Ang-1) and -2 (Ang-2) are keyplayers in the regulation of endothelial homeostasis and vascular proliferation. Angiopoietins may play an important role in the pathophysiology of cerebral vasospasm (CVS). Ang-1 and Ang-2 have not been investigated in this regard so far. Methods 20 patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) and 20 healthy controls (HC) were included in this prospective study. Blood samples were collected from days 1 to 7 and every other day thereafter. Ang-1 and Ang-2 were measured in serum samples using commercially available enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Transcranial Doppler sonography was performed to monitor the occurrence of cerebral vasospasm. Results SAH patients showed a significant drop of Ang-1 levels on day 2 and 3 post SAH compared to baseline and HC. Patients, who developed Doppler sonographic CVS, showed significantly lower levels of Ang-1 with a sustained decrease in contrast to patients without Doppler sonographic CVS, whose Ang-1 levels recovered in the later course of the disease. In patients developing cerebral ischemia attributable to vasospasm significantly lower Ang-1 levels have already been observed on the day of admission. Differences of Ang-2 between SAH patients and HC or patients with and without Doppler sonographic CVS were not statistically significant. Conclusions Ang-1, but not Ang-2, is significantly altered in patients suffering from SAH and especially in those experiencing CVS and cerebral ischemia. The loss of vascular integrity, regulated by Ang-1, might be in part responsible for the development of cerebral vasospasm and subsequent cerebral ischemia.

Abstract Background Some patients awaken from coma (that is, open the eyes) but remain unresponsive (that is, only showing reflex movements without response to command). This syndrome has been coined vegetative state. We here present a new name for this challenging neurological condition: unresponsive wakefulness syndrome (abbreviated UWS). Discussion Many clinicians feel uncomfortable when referring to patients as vegetative. Indeed, to most of the lay public and media vegetative state has a pejorative connotation and seems inappropriately to refer to these patients as being vegetable-like. Some political and religious groups have hence felt the need to emphasize these vulnerable patients' rights as human beings. Moreover, since its first description over 35 years ago, an increasing number of functional neuroimaging and cognitive evoked potential studies have shown that physicians should be cautious to make strong claims about awareness in some patients without behavioral responses to command. Given these concerns regarding the negative associations intrinsic to the term vegetative state as well as the diagnostic errors and their potential effect on the treatment and care for these patients (who sometimes never recover behavioral signs of consciousness but often recover to what was recently coined a minimally conscious state) we here propose to replace the name. Conclusion Since after 35 years the medical community has been unsuccessful in changing the pejorative image associated with the words vegetative state, we think it would be better to change the term itself. We here offer physicians the possibility to refer to this condition as unresponsive wakefulness syndrome or UWS. As this neutral descriptive term indicates, it refers to patients showing a number of clinical signs (hence syndrome) of unresponsiveness (that is, without response to commands) in the presence of wakefulness (that is, eye opening).

Abstract Background Neuroinflammation and demyelination have been suggested as mechanisms causing HIV-1 associated neurocognitive disorder (HAND). This cross-sectional cohort study explores the potential role of antibodies to myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG), a putative autoantigen in multiple sclerosis, in the pathogenesis of HAND. Methods IgG antibodies against MOG were measured by ELISA in sera and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of 65 HIV-positive patients with HAND (n = 14), cerebral opportunistic infections (HIVOI, n = 25), primary HIV infection (HIVM, n = 5) and asymptomatic patients (HIVasy, n = 21). As control group HIV-negative patients with bacterial or viral CNS infections (OIND, n = 18) and other neurological diseases (OND, n = 22) were included. In a subset of HAND patients MOG antibodies were determined before and during antiviral therapy. Results In serum, significantly higher MOG antibody titers were observed in HAND compared to OND patients. In CSF, significantly higher antibody titers were observed in HAND and HIVOI patients compared to HIVasy and OND patients and in OIND compared to OND patients. CSF anti-MOG antibodies showed a high sensitivity and specificity (85.7% and 76.2%) for discriminating patients with active HAND from asymptomatic HIV patients. MOG immunopositive HAND patients performed significantly worse on the HIV dementia scale and showed higher viral load in CSF. In longitudinally studied HAND patients, sustained antibody response was noted despite successful clearance of viral RNA. Conclusions Persistence of MOG antibodies despite viral clearance in a high percentage of HAND patients suggests ongoing neuroinflammation, possibly preventing recovery from HAND.

Abstract Background Prognosis assessment of patients with infectious and neoplastic disorders of the central nervous system (CNS) may still pose a challenge. In this retrospective cross-sectional study the prognostic value of basic cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) parameters in patients with bacterial meningitis, viral meningoencephalitis and leptomeningeal metastases were evaluated. Methods White blood cell count, CSF/serum glucose ratio, protein, CSF/serum albumin quotient and Immunoglobulin indices for IgG, IgA and IgM were analyzed in 90 patients with bacterial meningitis, 117 patients with viral meningoencephalitis and 36 patients with leptomeningeal metastases in a total of 480 CSF samples. Results In the initial spinal tap, the IgG-index was the only independent predictor for unfavorable outcome (GOS < 5) in patients with infectious CNS diseases but not in patients with leptomeningeal metastases. The sensitivity and specificity of an IgG-index of 0.75 and higher for predicting unfavorable outcome was 40.9% and 80.8% in bacterial meningitis and 40% and 94.8% in viral meningoencephalitis, respectively. No significant associations between CSF parameters and outcome could be observed in follow-up CSF samples. Conclusion The present study suggests that in infectious CNS diseases an elevated IgG-Index might be an additional marker for the early identification of patients at risk for neurological morbidity.

Abstract Background Plasmodium falciparum malaria has been suspected to cause hearing loss. Developmental, cognitive and language disorders have been observed in children, surviving cerebral malaria. This prospective study aims to evaluate whether malaria influences hearing in mice. Methods Twenty mice were included in a standardized murine cerebral malaria model. Auditory evoked brainstem responses were assessed before infection and at the peak of the illness. Results A significant hearing impairment could be demonstrated in mice with malaria, especially the cerebral form. The control group did not show any alterations. No therapy was used. Conclusion This suggests that malaria itself leads to a hearing impairment in mice.

Abstract Background Cerebral malaria (CM) is associated with high mortality and morbidity caused by a high rate of transient or persistent neurological sequelae. Studies on immunomodulatory and neuroprotective drugs as ancillary treatment in murine CM indicate promising potential. The current study was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of glatiramer acetate (GA), an immunomodulatory drug approved for the treatment of relapsing remitting multiple sclerosis, in preventing the death of C57Bl/6J mice infected with Plasmodium berghei ANKA. Methods and Results GA treatment led to a statistically significant lower risk for developing CM (57.7% versus 84.6%) in treated animals. The drug had no effect on the course of parasitaemia. The mechanism of action seems to be an immunomodulatory effect since lower IFN-gamma levels were observed in treated animals in the early course of the disease (day 4 post-infection) which also led to a lower number of brain sequestered leukocytes in treated animals. No direct neuro-protective effect such as an inhibition of apoptosis or reduction of micro-bleedings in the brain was found. Conclusion These findings support the important role of the host immune response in the pathophysiology of murine CM and might lead to the development of new adjunctive treatment strategies.

Abstract Background Molecular mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of severe Plasmodium falciparum malaria (SM), are not yet fully understood. Both endothelin-1 (ET-1) and C-type natriuretic peptide (CNP) are produced by vascular endothelium and act locally as paracrine regulators of vascular tone, ET-1 being a potent vasoconstrictor and CNP having strong vasorelaxant properties. Methods Plasma levels of ET-1 and N-terminal fragments of CNP (NT-proCNP) were studied on admission and after 24 hours of treatment, using enzyme-linked-immunosorbent-assay (ELISA) technique, in Gabonese children with severe falciparum malaria (SM, n = 50), with uncomplicated malaria (UM, n = 39) and healthy controls (HC, n = 25). Results Compared to HC, malaria patients had significantly higher plasma levels of ET-1 and significantly lower levels of NT-proCNP (p < 0.001 and p < 0.024 respectively). Plasma levels of NT-proCNP were additionally decreased in SM patients compared to HC (p = 0.034), whereas UM was not significantly different to HC. In the SM group we found a trend towards lower ET-1 levels compared to UM (p = 0.085). Conclusion In the present study, an imbalance between the vasoconstricitve and vasorelaxant endothelium-derived substances ET-1 and CNP in the plasma of children with falciparum malaria is demonstrated, presumably in favor of vasoconstrictive and pro-inflammatory effects. These results may indicate involvement of ET-1 and CNP in malaria pathogenesis. Furthermore, results of lower ET-1 and CNP levels in SM may reflect endothelial cell damage.

Abstract Background Diabetes mellitus is becoming increasingly common in sub-Saharan Africa. Autonomic dysfunction contributes to morbidity and mortality in diabetic patients. Data on autonomic dysfunction in the African population is scarce, and no reference values for standardized autonomic function tests are available. The aim of this study was to establish cut off values for five easy-to-use cardiovascular autonomic function tests that may be suitable for resource-poor settings. Methods We recruited 276 healthy African individuals, 156 men and 120 women, aged > 20 years. Participants were tested for (1) resting heart rate (HR), (2) HR variation in response to deep breathing, (3) HR response to standing, and (4) postural changes in systolic and diastolic blood pressure (SBP and DBP). Respective cut-off values were calculated according to the 95th or 5th percentile. Results Taking an association of the autonomic test results with gender and age into consideration, we defined the following cut-off values: resting HR (bpm) ≥ 89 for men and ≥ 97 for women; HR (bpm) in response to deep breathing ≤ 13, ≤ 11, ≤ 9, ≤ 8, and ≤ 7 for age groups 20–29, 30–39, 40–49, 50–59, and 60+ years, respectively; HR (bpm) in response to standing ≤ 14 for 20–29 years, and ≤ 11 for 30+ years; postural decreases in SBP ≥ 17 mmHg for all age groups; and postural decreases in DBP (mmHg) ≥ 2 for men and ≥ 5 for women. Conclusion The test battery revealed cut-off values different from those measured in Caucasians. Further studies are recommended a) to assess whether these cut off values are generally applicable, and b) to establish population specific reference values for Africans.

Abstract Background The treatment of Herpes-simplex-virus-encephalitis (HSVE) remains a major unsolved problem in Neurology. Current gold standard for therapy is acyclovir, a drug that inhibits viral replication. Despite antiviral treatment, mortality remains up to 15%, less than 20% of patients are able to go back to work, and the majority of patients suffer from severe disability. This is a discouraging, unsatisfactory situation for treating physicians, the disabled patients and their families, and constitutes an enormous burden to the public health services. The information obtained from experimental animal research and from recent retrospective clinical observations, indicates that a substantial benefit in outcome can be expected in patients with HSVE who are treated with adjuvant dexamethasone. But currently there is no available evidence to support the routine use of adjuvant corticosteroid treatment in HSVE. A randomized multicenter trial is the only useful instrument to address this question. Design GACHE is a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel group clinical trial of treatment with acyclovir and adjuvant dexamethasone, as compared with acyclovir and placebo in adults with HSVE. The statistical design will be that of a 3-stage-group sequential trial with potential sample size adaptation in the last stage. Conclusion 372 patients with proven HSVE (positive HSV-DNA-PCR), aged 18 up to 85 years; with focal neurological signs no longer than 5 days prior to admission, and who give informed consent will be recruited from Departments of Neurology of academic medical centers in Germany, Austria and The Netherlands. Sample size will potentially be extended after the second interim analysis up to a maximum of 450 patients. Trial Registration Current Controlled Trials ISRCTN45122933

Abstract Background The patho-mechanisms leading to brain damage due to cerebral malaria (CM) are yet not fully understood. Immune-mediated and ischaemic mechanisms have been implicated. The role of complement factors C1q, C3 and C5 for the pathogenesis of CM were investigated in this study. Methods C57BL/6J mice were infected with Plasmodium berghei ANKA blood stages. The clinical severity of the disease was assessed by a battery of 40 standardized tests for evaluating neurological functions in mice. Brain homogenates and sera of mice with CM, infected animals without CM and non-infected control animals were analyzed for C1q, C3 and C5 up-regulation by Western blotting. Results Densitometric analysis of Western blots of brain homogenates yielded statistically significant differences in the levels of C1q and C5 in the analyzed groups. Correlation analysis showed a statistically significant association of C1q and C5 levels with the clinical severity of the disease. More severely affected animals showed higher levels of C1q and C5. No differences in complement levels were observed between frontal and caudal parts of the brain. Densitometric analysis of Western blot of sera yielded statistically lower levels of C1q in infected animals without CM compared to animals of the control group. Conclusion The current study provides direct evidence for up-regulation of complement factors C1q and C5 in the brains of animals with CM. Local complement up-regulation is a possible mechanism for brain damage in experimental cerebral malaria.

Abstract Background The mechanisms leading to death and functional impairments due to cerebral malaria (CM) are yet not fully understood. Most of the knowledge about the pathomechanisms of CM originates from studies in animal models. Though extensive histopathological studies of the murine brain during CM are existing, alterations have not been visualized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) so far. The present study investigates the neuropathological features of murine CM by applying SEM. Methods C57BL/6J mice were infected with Plasmodium berghei ANKA blood stages. When typical symptoms of CM developed perfused brains were processed for SEM or light microscopy, respectively. Results Ultrastructural hallmarks were disruption of vessel walls, parenchymal haemorrhage, leukocyte sequestration to the endothelium, and diapedesis of macrophages and lymphocytes into the Virchow-Robin space. Villous appearance of observed lymphocytes were indicative of activated state. Cerebral oedema was evidenced by enlargement of perivascular spaces. Conclusion The results of the present study corroborate the current understanding of CM pathophysiology, further support the prominent role of the local immune system in the neuropathology of CM and might expose new perspectives for further interventional studies.

Concentrations of interferon gamma in serum and of neopterin in serum and urine were determined in 55 Tanzanians attending a local hospital for various diseases or complaints. For comparison, serum concentrations of interferon gamma and of neopterin were also measured in 76 clinically healthy Austrian blood donors. Both interferon gamma and neopterin concentrations were significantly higher in patients than in blood donors. Both analytes were significantly correlated with each other, and both exhibited similar behaviour in dependence on clinical diagnosis. The results support use of neopterin determination for indirect measurement of endogenous production of interferon gamma.

Background and purposeTherapeutic hypothermia is a potent neuroprotectant approved for cerebral protection after neonatal hypoxia-ischemia and cardiac arrest. Therapeutic hypothermia for acute ischemic stroke is safe and feasible in pilot trials. We designed a study protocol to provide safer, faster therapeutic hypothermia in stroke patients.MethodsSafety procedures and 4°C saline infusions for faster cooling were added to the ICTuS trial (Intravascular Cooling in the Treatment of Stroke) protocol. A femoral venous intravascular cooling catheter after intravenous recombinant tissue-type plasminogen activator in eligible patients provided 24 hours cooling followed by a 12-hour rewarm. Serial safety assessments and imaging were performed. The primary end point was 3-month modified Rankin score 0,1.ResultsOf the intended 1600 subjects, 120 were enrolled before the study was stopped. Randomly, 63 were to receive hypothermia plus antishivering treatment and 57 normothermia. Compared with previous studies, cooling rates were improved with a cold saline bolus, without fluid overload. The intention-to-treat primary outcome of 90-day modified Rankin Score 0,1 occurred in 33% hypothermia and 38% normothermia subjects, odds ratio (95% confidence interval) of 0.81 (0.36-1.85). Serious adverse events occurred equally. Mortality was 15.9% hypothermia and 8.8% normothermia subjects, odds ratio (95% confidence interval) of 1.95 (0.56-7.79). Pneumonia occurred in 19% hypothermia versus 10.5% in normothermia subjects, odds ratio (95% confidence interval) of 1.99 (0.63-6.98).ConclusionsIntravascular therapeutic hypothermia was confirmed to be safe and feasible in recombinant tissue-type plasminogen activator-treated acute ischemic stroke patients. Protocol changes designed to reduce pneumonia risk appeared to fail, although the sample is small.Clinical trial registrationURL: http://www.clinicaltrials.gov. Unique identifier: NCT01123161.