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Schizophyllan is a triple helical β‐1,3‐D‐glucan, and shows the cooperative order–disorder transition in the aqueous solution at the triple helix state. In this paper, the solvent stabilizing effects of two carboxylic acids, acetic acid and citric acid, on the cooperative order–disorder transition of aqueous schizophyllan solution were investigated from DSC and SEC‐MALS measurements. The transition temperature (Tr) was shifted to higher temperature with increasing the molar fraction of carboxylic acid in the mixture (x). The transition enthalpy (ΔHr) was increased with increasing x. These solvent stabilizing effects indicate that these carboxylic acid molecules were selectively associated with the branched side chains of schizophyllan to stabilize the ordered state. The composition dependencies of Tr and ΔHr were analyzed by the linear cooperative transition theory to estimate the association parameters between the side chains and carboxylic acid. The theoretical parameters obtained were compared with those for the other active substances for the transition to discuss the molecular interactions between the triple helix and carboxylic acid. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Schizophyllum commune or split gill mushroom is a pharmaceutical mushroom. Its cell wall contains abundant schizophyllan (β-glucan or polysaccharide from S. commune) distinguished by various biological activities. This experiment focused on studying the optimized ethanol precipitation process of the schizophyllan on the maximum degree of polymerization (DP), highest total sugar, and optimal reducing sugar concentration using response surface methodology (RSM) on central composite design (CCD). The experimental design examined the factors, including the split gill mushroom content (5–15% w/v) and ethanol concentration (49–74% v/v). From this experiment, it could be concluded that the optimized condition of this cost-effective extraction was the low mushroom content 5–8% (w/v) and optimal ethanol concentration 62–65% (v/v) with the highest DP value around 5, along with efficient immunomodulatory and anticancer effects. Thus, further research will develop the pharmaceutical schizophyllan extract as nutraceutical products or drugs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The split gill mushroom or Schizophyllum commune (S. commune) is a therapeutic mushroom. For cell wall composition, it consists of rich β-glucans (schizophyllan). This mushroom is high in nutritional content and has a wide range of biological properties. In this research, it is interesting to study hot water extraction of this functional schizophyllan. Central composite design (CCD) of response surface methodology (RSM) was applied to optimize these extraction parameters, namely, temperature (80–121 °C) and time (1–3 h) of schizophyllan extract (polysaccharide from S. commune) with a greater degree of polymerization (DP), maximum total sugar content, minimum reducing sugar content, and appropriate extraction yield. The results revealed the highest yield obtained from polysaccharide and supernatant extract (from the separation of polysaccharide extraction) at an extraction temperature of 121 °C for 2–3 h. Moreover, the optimal extraction temperature and time of polysaccharide extracts were 106.5 °C and 126.7 min (total sugar content); 103.1 °C and 177.0 min (reducing sugar content); and 104.1 °C and 175.5 min (DP value). This research shows that the optimum condition of schizophyllan extraction was around 100–110 °C for 2–3 h with the highest DP of about 6, including potential immune-enhancing and anticancer properties. As a result, the schizophyllan from the split gill mushroom is probably utilized as a functional ingredient with nutraceutical compounds and developed as other high value-added functional food products in further study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Bioactive polysaccharides are a promising way for bone disease prevention with high efficiency. Schizophyllan (SPG) is a polysaccharide derived from a species of fungus with anticancer, antitumor, and anti-inflammatory effects. In the present study, for the first time, the cell proliferation, osteogenic markers, mineral deposition, and osteogenic gene expression of human adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells (hADMSCs) grown on SPG were evaluated by in vitro assays. Methods and results: The cytotoxicity of SPG was measured using the MTT assay and acridine orange staining. Differentiation of hADMSCs was assessed using alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity test, cellular calcium content assay, and mineralized matrix staining. To this end, Alizarin red S, von Kossa staining, and the expression of bone-specific markers, including ALP, Runx2, and osteonectin, were used by real-time RT-PCR over a 2-week period. According to the results, SPG at 10 µg/ml concentration was determined as the optimal dosage for differentiation studies. The results of osteogenic differentiation tests showed that compared to the control groups in vitro, SPG enhanced the osteogenic markers and mineralization as well as upregulation of the expression of bone specific genes in differentiated hADMSCs during differentiation. Conclusions: The results revealed that SPG could be applied as effective factor for osteogenic differentiation in the future. The current study provides insights into the hADMSC-based treatment and introduces promising therapeutic material for individuals who suffer from bone defects and injuries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Two of the mycotoxins of greatest agroeconomic significance are aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), and ochratoxin A (OTA). It has been reported that extracts from some wood-decaying mushrooms, such as Lentinula edodes and Trametes versicolor showed the ability to inhibit AFB1 or OTA biosynthesis. Therefore, in our study, a wide screening of 42 isolates of different ligninolytic mushrooms was assayed for their ability to inhibit the synthesis of OTA in Aspergillus carbonarius and AFB1 in Aspergillus flavus, in order to find a metabolite that can simultaneously inhibit both mycotoxins. The results showed that four isolates produce metabolites able to inhibit the synthesis of OTA, and 11 isolates produced metabolites that inhibited AFB1 by >50%. Two strains, the Trametes versicolor strain TV117 and the Schizophyllum commune strain S.C. Ailanto, produced metabolites able to significantly inhibit (>90%) the synthesis of both mycotoxins. Preliminary results suggest that the mechanism of efficacy of the S. commune rough and semipurified polysaccharides could be analogous to that found previously for Tramesan®, by enhancing the antioxidant response in the target fungal cells. The overall results indicate that S. commune's polysaccharide(s) could be a potential agent(s) in biological control and/or a useful component of the integrated strategies able to control mycotoxin synthesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Carbohydrates, including polysaccharide macromolecules, are the main constituents of the fungal cell wall. Among these, the homo- or heteropolymeric glucan molecules are decisive, as they not only protect fungal cells but also have broad, positive biological effects on the animal and human bodies. In addition to the beneficial nutritional properties of mushrooms (mineral elements, favorable proteins, low fat and energy content, pleasant aroma, and flavor), they have a high glucan content. Folk medicine (especially in the Far East) used medicinal mushrooms based on previous experience. At the end of the 19th century, but mainly since the middle of the 20th century, progressively more scientific information has been published. Glucans from mushrooms are polysaccharides that contain sugar chains, sometimes of only one kind (glucose), sometimes having several monosaccharide units, and they have two (α and β) anomeric forms (isomers). Their molecular weights range from 104 to 105 Da, and rarely 106 Da. X-ray diffraction studies were the first to determine the triple helix configuration of some glucans. It seems that the existence and integrity of the triple helix structure are criteria for their biological effects. Different glucans can be isolated from different mushroom species, and several glucan fractions can be obtained. The biosynthesis of glucans takes place in the cytoplasm, the processes of initiation and then chain extension take place with the help of the glucan synthase enzyme complex (EC 2.4.1.34), and the sugar units are provided by sugar donor UDPG molecules. The two methods used today for glucan determination are the enzymatic and Congo red methods. True comparisons can only be made using the same method. Congo red dye reacts with the tertiary triple helix structure, and the resulting glucan content better reflects the biological value of glucan molecules. The biological effect of β-glucan molecules is proportional to the integrity of the tertiary structure. The glucan contents of the stipe exceed the values of the caps. The glucan levels of individual fungal taxa (including varieties) differ quantitatively and qualitatively. This review presents in more detail the glucans of lentinan (from Lentinula edodes), pleuran (from Pleurotus ostreatus), grifolan (from Grifola frondose), schizophyllan (from Schizophyllum commune), and krestin (from Trametes versicolor), along with their main biological effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Schizophyllum commune is a basidiomycete that is capable of producing different valuable metabolites such as schizophyllan-a polysaccharide, ethanol, and lignocellulolytic enzymes. Schizophyllan finds application in the food industry, pharmacy, and oil recovery. It acts as a non-specific stimulator of immune system. It shows bioactivities such as antineoplastic, antibacterial, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, and antiparasitic properties. S. commune is capable of producing bioethanol directly in a single step using lignocellulosic biomass. Lignocellulolytic enzymes including cellulase, xylanase, pectinase, laccase, lignin peroxidase, and manganese peroxidase, are also synthesized efficiently by different strains of S. commune. Being a good producer of ligninolytic enzymes, S. commune has been shown to be effective for the degradation of various synthetic dyes. This article reviews the production of schizophyllan, ethanol, and enzymes and the utilization of S. commune for lignocellulose degradation and decolorization of synthetic dyes.

Amphiphilic polysaccharides can be used as wall materials and applied to encapsulate hydrophobic active chemicals; moreover, there is significant demand for novel medical high-molecular-weight materials with various functions. In order to prepare amphiphilic schizophyllan (SPG), octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA) was chosen to synthesize OSA-modified schizophyllan (OSSPG) using an esterified reaction. The modification of OSSPG was demonstrated through FT-IR and thermal analysis. Moreover, it was found that OSSPG has a better capacity for loading curcumin, and the loading amount was 20 μg/mg, which was 2.6 times higher than that of SPG. In addition, a hydrogel made up of PVA, borax, and C-OSSPG (OSSPG loaded with curcumin) was prepared by means of the one-pot method, based on the biological effects of curcumin and the immune-activating properties of SPG. The mechanical properties and biological activity of the hydrogel were investigated. The experimental results show that the dynamic cross-linking of PVA and borax provided the C-OSSPG/BP hydrogel dressing with exceptional self-healing properties, and it was discovered that the C-OSSPG content increased the hydrogel's swelling and moisturizing properties. In fibroblast cell tests, the cells treated with hydrogel had survival rates of 80% or above. Furthermore, a hydrogel containing C-OSSPG could effectively promote cell migration. Due to the excellent anti-inflammatory properties of curcumin, the hydrogel also significantly reduces the generation of inflammatory factors, such as TNF-α and IL-6, and thus has a potential application as a wound dressing medicinal material. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Schizophyllum commune is a mushroom-forming fungus well-known for its ability to degrade lignocellulosic materials and production of schizophyllan, a high added-value product for cosmeceutical, pharmaceutical, and biomaterial industries. Conventionally, schizophyllan is produced by submerged fermentation using glucose as a carbon source. In this work, we demonstrate that alkaline pretreated bagasse can be used by Schizophyllum commune as an alternative carbon source for the production of schizophyllan. The influence of different factors was investigated including cultivation time, biomass loading, and culturing media component and a co-product correlation model was proposed. In this lab-scale study, a yield of 4.4 g/L of schizophyllan containing 89% glucose was achieved. In addition to schizophyllan, the cellulolytic enzymes co-produced during this process were isolated and characterized and could find applications in a range of industrial processes. This demonstrates the potential of using agricultural waste as a cheaper alternative feedstock for this biorefinery process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present study, the effect of employing the increasing- aeration strategy (IAS) in the oxygen-limited situation and proportionate to increasing oxygen demand of the fungus Schizophyllum commune (S. commune) has been investigated in both stirred tank (STB) and bubble column (BCB) bioreactors. The purpose was to enhance schizophyllan (SPG) production by preventing oxygen starvation, improve mixing conditions of pseudoplastic culture, and intensify shear stress on fungus pellets to release SPG. At first, a constant-aeration rate of 0.08 vvm was implemented in both bioreactors to evaluate the new strategy compared to the previously studied methods. In the second set of experiments with IAS, along with the increasing oxygen demand of culture, the inlet airflow was increased gradually, while the dissolved oxygen (DO) was maintained higher than zero and below 1%. Using IAS in STB significantly raised productivity by about 100% in 96 h from 0.035 to 0.073 g/L.h. Also, employing this strategy in BCB led to a 30% increase in the maximum SPG production from 3.2 to 4.2 g/L. IAS can effectively help handle the operation of S. commune cultivation on a large scale by improving mixing conditions, mass transfer, and shear stress in both bioreactor types. This method had a significant impact on STB cultivation and its productivity so that it can be a practical approach to SPG's industrial production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Delivering therapeutic nucleic acids to targeted cells and organs has been a challenge for decades. A novel technology to deliver oligonucleotide therapeutics to immune cells is here described. In this approach, a macromolecular complex of oligonucleotides and the β-1,3-glucan schizophyllan (SPG) is selectively delivered to cells expressing a lectin receptor, Dectin-1, via SPG–Dectin-1 interaction. Detailed investigation of Dectin-1-expressing cells revealed that Dectin-1 is expressed in all subsets of monocytes as well as dendritic cell (DC) populations, including conventional DCs (cDCs) and plasmacytoid DCs (pDCs), in humans. The expression patterns in mice and humans are comparable, except for the expression in pDCs. The results indicate that Dectin-1 is expressed on cells capable of professional antigen presentation, except for B cells. We chose CD40 as a target gene for small interfering RNA (siRNA) as CD40 expression in antigen-presenting cells (APCs), particularly in DCs, plays critical roles in regulating immune responses. Dose-dependent cellular uptake of siCD40–SPG complexes was confirmed in cells expressing Dectin-1. Gene silencing activity was confirmed in vitro by the reduction of CD40 mRNA and by the site-specific cleavage of CD40 mRNA as determined by the 5' RNA ligase-mediated rapid amplification of cDNA ends (5'RLM-RACE) technique. In vivo activity of siCD40–SPG complexes was demonstrated as the reduced CD40 protein expression in monocytes and DCs in mice. Furthermore, the in vivo activity of siCD40–SPG targeting human CD40 was confirmed in cynomolgus monkeys by the 5'RLM-RACE technique. In conclusion, we have demonstrated the receptor-ligand binding-mediated delivery of siRNA targeting immune-regulating monocytes and DCs via the interaction of SPG and its receptor, Dectin-1. As monocytes and DCs play central roles in inducing and controlling immune responses, Dectin-1-targeted delivery of nucleic acids should provide a useful tool for developing drugs to treat a wide range of diseases, including autoimmune diseases, allergy, and cancer, as well as transplantation. Targeted delivery of siRNA complexed with β-1,3-glucan schizophyllan (SPG) to Dectin-1 positive cells is evaluated in mouse and human cells; in vivo gene silencing activity is confirmed in monkeys. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nanocomposite hydrogel is helpful to provide a moist and ideal environment for wound healing. In this research study, a nanocomposite hydrogel was prepared based on schizophyllan (SPG) and amine-functionalized bacterial cellulose (amine-functionalized BC). ZnO-nanoparticles were loaded into amine-grafted BC/SPG hydrogel to improve its antibacterial feature. The successful functionalization of bacterial cellulose by (3-aminopropyl)triethoxysilane was verified by FTIR and XRD analyses. XRD pattern of amine-grafted BC/SPG/ZnO NP showed some new peaks in comparison with XRD pattern of amine-grafted BC/SPG which verified the intercalation of ZnO into polymeric matrix. SEM images showed that the porous spaces of BC have been filled by schizophyllan as a result of the intermolecular attraction between them. Deposition of ZnO nanoparticles on the surface of amine-grafted BC/SPG has also been verified by SEM analysis. Amine-grafted BC/SPG membrane showed the higher swelling degree (850 ± 48%) in comparison with BC (512 ± 29%). The swelling ratio decreased to 725 ± 19% by addition of ZnO nanoparticles. Amine-grafted BC/SPG exhibited the higher mechanical strength (45 MPa) in comparison with pristine BC (10 MPa). The tensile strength of amine-grafted BC/SPG/ZnO NP nanocomposite reached ~ 70 MPa that might be resulted from the formation of hydrogen bonding between hydroxyl groups of polymers and oxygen atoms in the ZnO NPs. Amine-grafted BC/SPG/ZnO showed a more remarkable antibacterial efficiency against E. coli and S. aureus. As compared to BC, amine-grafted BC/SPG could stimulate the proliferation of human fibroblast cell. Cell viability showed a slight decrease after exposure to amine-grafted BC/SPG/ZnO NP nanocomposite. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most severe forms of brain cancer, eventually becoming the leading cause of brain cancer-related death worldwide. Owing to the bleak surgical interventions and resistance to the different treatment regime, GBM is a parlous disease demanding newer therapeutical perspective for its treatment. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are well-known members of pathogen recognition receptors (PRRs) and have been extensively explored for their therapeutic and prophylactic potential in an array of disease including cancer. Recent trends in drug delivery research has shown shift towards delivering short DNA sequences (CpG DNA) to endosomal TLR9 within immune cells (macrophages, dendritic cells, etc.) for the activation of desired inflammatory response using non-agonistic β-glucan particles; a well-known ligand for Dectin-1 receptors. Our study is therefore focused to explore the role of nano-encapsulated CpG ODN as critical players in polarizing M2 scavenging to much desired pro-inflammatory type. The nanoparticles entrapping CpG ODN 1826 were prepared by using a fungal polymer Schizophyllan (SPG). The constructed nanoparticles were characterized and assessed for their efficacy on rat glioblastoma cells (C6). The constructed Schizophyllan (SPG) nanoparticles entrapping CpG ODN 1826 (95.3%) were of 25.49 nm in diameter and thus capable of crossing blood–brain barrier. The rat glioblastoma (C6) cells evaluated for intracellular oxidative burst and cytokine levels pre- and post-incubation with nanoparticles exhibited marked elevation in the expression of intracellular ROS and IFN-γ as well as IL-1β post treatment. The findings indicate towards potentiality of repolarizing the M2 macrophages to much desired M1 phase by inducing higgh levels of oxidative burst and inflammatory cytokines. Consequently, the apoptosis was induced in glioblastoma cells establishing the suitablity of CpG ODN carrying nanoformulations as emerging therapeutic intervention for GBM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent trends in immunotherapy have shown enthusiasm in exploring Toll‐like receptors (TLRs) for designing therapeutical interventions against numerous deadly diseases. TLRs are subfamily of pathogen recognition receptor playing pivotal role in innate immunity. TLR9 is one such critical member belonging to intracellular TLRs which is associated with mounting inflammatory response in response to intruders. Explorative studies have shown CG motifs from the prokaryotic origin as activators of TLR9 culminating in the expression of NFκB. These CG rich short stranded DNA sequences have been further delineated into different classes based on their structural specificities and immunomodulatory properties. Here we discuss the progress of how activation of TLR9 can be utilized with novel parasitic CpG islands to function as potential adjuvants specifically against protozoan parasitic diseases primarily visceral leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania donovani. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Schizophyllum commune is a wood-rotting filamentous fungus that secrets a homopolysaccharide called as schizophyllan. Schizophyllan has several applications such as enhanced oil recovery, pharmaceutical materials and an anti-cancer drug carrier. Biomass growth and schizophyllan production increase the viscosity of the cultivation medium, thus resulting in mass transfer limitation for the substrate. In this study, adding talc and aluminium oxide microparticles into the cultivation medium was studied to improve the fungal growth and morphology. The response surface methodology and one factor at a time were applied to find the effects of microparticles with different sizes and concentrations on the schizophyllan production. The optimum concentration and size of aluminium oxide microparticles were obtained as 20 g L−1 and < 30 µm, respectively. Aluminium oxide microparticles in shake flask culture caused to increase the schizophyllan production from 10 to 15 g L−1 and decrease the cultivation time from 10 to 7 days. The production yield also increased from 0.11 to 0.30 g of schizophyllan/g glucose. Bioreactor cultivation showed a twofold increase in schizophyllan production from 1.5 to 3 g L−1. The results of this study suggested a significant increase in the production of schizophyllan using a low-cost "microparticle-enhanced cultivation" without any further optimization of the culture medium. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water-soluble polysaccharides from Schizophyllum commune (SPGs) were extracted using different methods including hot-water extraction (HWE), ultrasound-assisted extraction (UE), microwave-assisted extraction (ME) and high pressure extraction (HPE). The physicochemical characteristics, antioxidant activity and hypoglycemic activity of four different SPGs were investigated. The results indicated that the polysaccharides yield (8.26%), uronic acid content (3.0%), total polysaccharides content (67.96%) and molecular weight (52.7 kDa) of SPGs extracted by HWE were higher than those obtained by other methods. FT-IR spectra and conformation information of four SPGs were similar, however, the color characteristics, the monosaccharide species and molar ratios, the solubility and micro-structure of each SPGs were significantly different. Though the molecular weight (11.0 kDa) of UE-SPGs was lowest, it showed the highest antioxidant activity and hypoglycemic activity. It could be considered that the UE extraction method might be a good potential extraction technique for the SPGs with high bioactivities. • Four extraction methods had been used to extract water-soluble polysaccharide from Schizophyllum commune (SPGs); • The FT-IR spectra and conformation information of four SPGs were similar while the extraction yield, total polysaccharides content, uronic acid content, protein content, sulfate radical content, molecular weight, monosaccharide compositions, color characteristics, solubility and microstructures had significant difference; • HWE-SPGs had the highest extraction yield, uronic acid content, total polysaccharides content and molecular weight, but its antioxidant activity was lowest when compared to other SPGs; • Though the molecular weight was lowest, UE-SPGs showed the highest antioxidant activity and hypoglycemic activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Schizophyllan (SPG), produced by Schizophyllum commune, is an exopolysaccharide with multiple academic and commercial uses, including in the food industry and for various medical functions. We previously demonstrated that SPG conjugated with c-Src peptide exerted a significant therapeutic effect on mouse models of the acute inflammatory diseases polymicrobial sepsis and ulcerative colitis. Here we extended these results by investigating whether SPG exerted a protective effect against mitochondrial damage in the liver via sirtuin 3 (SIRT3) induction, focusing on the deacetylation of succinate dehydrogenase A (SDHA) and superoxide dismutase 2 (SOD2). Liver damage models induced by alcohol or conjugated linoleic acid (CLA, which simulates lipodystrophy) in SIRT3−/−, SOD2−/−, and SDHA−/− mice were used. Results showed that dietary supplementation with SPG induced SIRT3 activation; this was involved in mitochondrial metabolic resuscitation that countered the adverse effects of alcoholic liver disease and CLA-induced damage. The mitochondrial SIRT3 mediated the deacetylation and activation of SOD2 in the liver and SDHA in adipose tissues, suggesting that SPG supplementation reduced ethanol-induced liver damage and CLA-induced adverse dietary effects via SIRT3–SOD2 and SIRT3–SDHA signaling, respectively. Together, these results suggest that dietary SPG has a previously unrecognized role in SIRT3-mediated mitochondrial metabolic resuscitation during mitochondria-related diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Schizophyllan (SPG), a β-glucan from Schizophyllum commune , is recognized for its antioxidant, immunoregulatory, and anticancer activities. In this study, its effects on bone cells, particularly osteoclasts and osteoblasts, were examined. We demonstrated that SPG dose-dependently inhibited osteoclastogenesis and reduced gene expression associated with osteoclast differentiation. SPG also decreased bone resorption and F-actin ring formation. This inhibition could have been due to the downregulation of transcription factors c-Fos and nuclear factor of activated T cells 1 (NFATc1) via the MAPKs (JNK and p38), IκBα, and PGC1β/PPARγ pathways. In coculture, SPG lowered osteoclastogenic activity in calvaria-derived osteoblasts by reducing macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) and receptor activator of nuclear factor–κB ligand (RANKL) expression. In addition, SPG slightly enhanced osteoblast differentiation, as evidenced by increased differentiation marker gene expression and alizarin red staining. It also exhibited antiresorptive effects in a lipopolysaccharide-induced calvarial bone loss model. These results indicated a dual role of SPG in bone cell regulation by suppressing osteoclastogenesis and promoting osteoblast differentiation. Thus, SPG could be a therapeutic agent for bone resorption-related diseases such as osteoporosis, rheumatoid arthritis, and periodontitis. • Schizophyllan (SPG) exhibits dual regulatory effects on bone metabolism. • SPG suppresses osteoclast activity and augments osteoblast differentiation. • Inhibitory effect due to downregulating c-Fos and NFATc1 expression. • Having potential as a therapeutic agent for diseases related to bone resorption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of natural polymers and electrospinning as a new method of wound dressing production is one of the things that can revolutionize the medical world. Due to the importance of wound healing and characteristics such as anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties, it is possible to use natural compounds such as fungi and metabolites derived from them to produce wound dressing. In this study, schizophyllan (SPG) as an extracellular polysaccharide was extracted from Iranian Schizophyllum commune (NCBI MG761830) and then the silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) were produced by the in-situ method in 1.5 % SPG solution. Afterward, they were combined with polyvinyl alcohol 10 % (PVA) polymer to strengthen the fiber structure. We investigated the properties of nanofibers containing PVA/SPG-AgNPs and PVA/SPG20 %. The physicochemical properties of two fibers were investigated by SEM, TEM, FTIR, contact angle, water uptake, nanoparticle release, and biological test (antibacterial, and MTT). The diameter of the nanofiber-containing the AgNPs was about 169 nm and the other nanofiber was about 212 nm. The highest inhibition of the growth of the bacterium by PVA/SPG-AgNPs against E. coli and S. aureus was about 88.34 % and 64.7 %, respectively. The silver ion release from PVA/SPG-AgNPs nanofibers was 21 μg/ml after fifth day. Both nanofibers had no toxic effect on L929 fibroblast cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Electrospinning is a micrometric or nanometric scale fiber manufacturing technique with structural factors such as greater contact surface and pore size that allows the incorporation of biological agents in its structure, increasing their potential for medical applications. Due to the conditions required for the electrospinning process, such as high voltage, in the present work, the evaluation of the antimicrobial activity of schizophyllan-based membranes elaborated by electrospinning at 20 kV incorporated with ${Hamamelis~ virginiana}$ was carried out against ${Staphylococcus ~aureus, ~Candida ~albicans}$ and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The schizophyllan production was 1.97 gL−1 from strain Schizophyllum commune ScIBL1. The conditions for the process were standardized for voltage, feed flow, and the distance from the injector to the collector. Membranes with smooth-edged fibers, diameter of 819 nm without the presence of beads were obtained. However, it was found that the membranes lost antimicrobial activity against all the microorganisms evaluated, whereas, bioassays showed that null toxicity was presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract In this study, aqueous Schizophyllan (SPG) (1.5 w/v%) was mixed with aqueous polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) (10 w/v%) at various volume ratios and electrospun to prepare nanofibers. The fiber diameter was decreased by increasing the SPG content. A reliable linear relationship (p < 0.01) was established between the solution properties and fiber diameter. Contiguous, bead-free, and smooth fibers were obtained when the SPG/PVA ratios were 20:80, 30:70, and 40:60. FT-IR spectra, SEM images, tensile testing, swelling ratios, and water contact angle were utilized to characterize this glutaraldehyde (Glu) vapor cross-linked nanofibers in order to analyze the morphology, functional groups, mechanical attributes, hydrophilicity, and humidity of the nanofibers for skin tissue regeneration. Furthermore, the cell culture that was studied by the use of fibroblast (L929) cells showed that these SPG-based nanofibrous scaffolds could generate the improved cell adhesion. In conclusion, it was observed that SPG/PVA nanofiber mat in a volume ratio of 20:80 after 3 day was a suitable material for improving the wound healing, as it could increase cell proliferation and migration that possessed fiber diameter. The characteristics of this nanofiber were 267 nm, contact angle of 47.75°, good swelling behavior (289%), the ultimate strength of 6.513 MPa, Young modulus of 2.665 MPa, and cell viability of 150%. Highlights • Schizophyllan was extracted from medicinal mushroom. • The fiber dimeter of Schizophyllan/PVA was reduced with increasing schizophyllan content. • There is a linear relationship between the conductivity and viscosity with fibre diameter of SPG/PVA mats (R2=0.96). • The result of SPG/PVA mats show that schizophyllan could be excellent material for wound dressing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

β-D-glucan has significant implications in regulating lipid metabolism and preventing diseases associated with lipid accumulation. Schizophyllan (SPG) from Schizophyllum commune fungus is a commercially important β-glucan with applications in the health food industry, pharmacy, and cosmetics. However, SPG was obtained by submerged culture of the wood-rotting and filamentous fungus S. commune BRM 060008, which may have been isolated from the Cerrado Biome of Brazil. In this study, to confirm that the polysaccharide produced by BRM 060008 strain fermentation was indeed (1→3)(1→6)-β-D-glucan, it was purified and characterized using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, high-performance size exclusion chromatography, nuclear magnetic resonance, and methylation analysis. The polysaccharide produced was identified as the β-D-glucan expected with a high molecular weight (1.093 × 106 g/mol) and the thermogravimetric analysis indicated a maximum degradation temperature of ~324 °C and a 60 % residual weight, lower than commercial SPG. The molecular structure and thermal properties of the β-D-glucan were similar to the commercial sample. Additionally, the in vitro pancreatic lipase inhibitory activity was evaluated, investigating anti-obesity and anti-lipidemic properties. The results showed unprecedented lipase inhibition activity to SPG prepared using the S. commune strain BRM 060008, making it promising for food and pharmaceutical applications. • A Brazilian wild strain of S. commune produced a (1→3)(1→6)-β-glucan. • Molecular structure and thermal properties of the β-glucan were similar to a commercial sample. • β-Glucan produced from S. commune BRM 060008 showed lipase inhibitory activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The edible split gill mushroom is considered both a nutritive and therapeutic superfood, as well as rich in schizophyllan and protein. Prebiotic properties and other biological effects distinguish the schizophyllan (β-glucan). Thus, this research investigates the identity of the mushroom strain, the nutritional composition of this mushroom, and the schizophyllan extract for further analysis, including its prebiotic activity and so on. The experimental results revealed that this mushroom was identified as Schizophyllum commune , comprising more excellent carbohydrates, protein, crude fiber, lower fat, and no heavy metal detection. Moreover, this extract consisted of pharmaceutical hydrophobin (14.0–18.5 kDa), lectin protein (21–35 kDa), bioactive purpurin or red pigment, including the prebiotic β-glucan stimulating the proliferation of probiotic bacteria isolated from yogurt. Therefore, both S. commune and the schizophyllan extract can be used as a prebiotic candidate, functional food, and nutraceutical product. • Schizophyllum commune is both a medicinal and nutraceutical mushroom. • This extract contains functional schizophyllan, hydrophobin, lectin and purpurin. • Schizophyllan reveals prebiotic and other diversified biological properties. • Schizophyllan can promote probiotic bacteria growth and enhances the immune system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Oxidized sucrose cross-linked Schizophyllan nanogel was successfully synthesized via inverse emulsion method for the first time. The synthesis process was conducted in the absence of both toxic cross-linker and organic solvent. The nanogel crosslinking network was prepared using fractionated coconut oil as the continuous phase and oxidized sucrose as the cross-linker. The formation of ether linkage on schizophyllan cross-linked structure was confirmed by Fourier transform infrared microscopy (FTIR) analysis. Size and morphology were evaluated by DLS analysis and SEM. The results showed that increasing the concentration of surfactant causes the decrease in the size. By keeping surfactant amounts constant, the increase in the amount of crosslinker caused increase in the size and swelling degree. Nontoxicity of the nanogels was proved by in vitro MTT analysis. The obtained nanogels, possess special properties such as high water content, colloidal stability, bioactivity, functionality, and interior network for drug loading capacity offer great potential for the utilization of nanogels in biomedical applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] We previously demonstrated antisense oligonucleotides (AS-ODNs) delivery system based on the complex formed with poly (dA) and schizophyllan, a type of β-1,3-glucan. This complex enables efficient intracellular delivery of AS-ODNs. In this communication, we investigated the cytoplasmic translocation of the complex itself and its mechanism of action on mRNA. As a result, we found that the complex moved into the cytoplasm while keeping its structure, and AS-ODN hybridized with the target mRNA. This result encourages pharmaceutical applications of the complex. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sparassis crispa is an edible mushroom and its purée forms a thermoreversible cold-setting gel. In the present study, the gel component was extracted and was analyzed by NMR. The gel component had the same primary structure as reported for the β-glucan of schizophyllan or scleroglucan, with β-(1 → 3)-linked glucose as the main chain and every three residues containing a β-(1 → 6)-linked glucose. Large deformation test of this β-glucan gel at 4 °C showed fracture at a strain of approximately 60% in the concentration range from 1.8 to 2.0 wt %. The β-glucan above a critical molecular weight appears to be required for gel formation. [Display omitted] • β-(1. → 6)-branched β-(1 → 3)-glucan formed a cold-setting thermoreversible gel. • The gelling component of S. crispa , schizophyllan and scleroglucan had the same chemical structure. • 1.8–2.0 wt % gel of S. crispa β-glucan fractured at fracture strain of around 60%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Schizophyllan (SPG) is a commercially attractive biopolymer produced by Schizophyllum commune. An investigation on the potential for SPG production by Iranian native S. commune was conducted based on culture medium, fermentation conditions and bioreactor type, . Nine native fungal strains were isolated from the northern forest of Iran at different times. Based on growth rate and SPG production, one strain was selected for further study. Optimal medium composition and inoculum size for maximizing SPG production and minimizing biomass were determined using central composite design by setting sucrose, yeast extract, inoculum size, carboxymethyl cellulose and oleic acid in the ranges of 50-200 g/L, 1-4 g/L, 2-10%, 2-12 g/L and 0.032-0.222%, respectively. The results showed that optimal results were obtained at 93.47 g/L sucrose, 1.87 g/L yeast extract, 7.68% inoculum size, 9.07 g/L carboxymethyl cellulose and 0.13% oleic acid, with maximum SPG production of 9.97 g/L and minimum biomass of 35.18 g/L. Under these optimal conditions, the production of SPG was studied in stirred tank and bubble column bioreactors. The results revealed greater production in the stirred tank because of better mixing of the culture medium. The SPG produced was characterized using rheometery, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance), scanning electron microscopy and gel permeation chromatography. The results of these characterizations demonstrated the similarity of the SPG produced by S. commune IBRC-M 30213 to commercial SPG. Thus, the SPG produced shows good potential as a polysaccharide for use in various industries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the effects of different recovery procedures on high molar mass schizophyllan produced by Schizophyllum commune using low value agricultural residues. Recovered extracellular polysaccharides (EPSs) were compared in terms of purity, sugar composition, degree of branching, molecular weight, and rheological properties. Performing different recovery methods, such as re-dissolving in water and re-precipitation with ethanol on produced EPS, provided schizophyllan with purity similar to the commercial grade. Besides, Freeze-thawing cycles allowed the fractionation of schizophyllan based on branching degree and solubility. The EPSs with higher purity and lower degree of branching (less conformational flexibility) showed higher viscosity. This study evidences the possibility of producing EPSs with excellent rheological properties using low value agricultural side products. Furthermore, our results demonstrate the importance of recovery methods for tailoring the purity, molecular structure and macroscopic properties of the produced polysaccharides for specific applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An unambiguous structural characterization of the water-soluble Aureobasidium pullulans β-(1 → 3, 1 → 6)-glucan is yet to be achieved, although this β-(1 → 3, 1 → 6)-glucan is expected to exhibit excellent biofunctional properties. Thus, we herein report the elucidation of the primary structure of the A. pullulans β-(1 → 3, 1 → 6)-glucan using nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, followed by comparison of the obtained structure with that of schizophyllan (SPG). Structural characterization of the A. pullulans β-(1 → 3, 1 → 6)-glucan revealed that the structural units are a β-(1 → 3)- d -glucan backbone with four β-(1 → 6)- d -glucosyl side branching units every six residues. In addition, circular dichroism spectroscopic analysis revealed that the β-(1 → 3, 1 → 6)-glucan interacted with polyadenylic acid (poly(A)) chains in DMSO solution to form a complex similar to that obtained in the complexation of SPG/poly(A). This finding indicates that β-(1 → 3, 1 → 6)-glucan forms a triple-helical conformation in aqueous solution but exhibits a random coil structure in DMSO solution, which is similar to the behavior of SPG. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An aniline blue fluorescence assay was constructed to quantify two fungal β-(1,3)–glucans with β-(1,6)–sidechains: scleroglucan and schizophyllan. Calibration curves were linear in the range from 30 mg/l to 6 g/l with R 2 > 99.8%. The assay was robust against d -glucose (50 g/l), oxalic acid (22.5 g/l), protein (0.667 g/l), and KCl (13.3 g/l). Sclerotium rolfsii and Schizophyllum commune cultures were sampled, and the test results of the assay and alcohol precipitation were compared. The correlation between assay results of samples at different stages of the purification with the values from the precipitation of the polymers was the best in the supernatant for S. rolfsii and after blending for S. commune . Using the precipitation data, correction factors of 2.46 and 3.83 for S. rolfsii and S. commune , respectively, were found. A range of other polymers were tested for their measurability with this assay. However, except for laminarin and microcrystalline cellulose no robust correlation between concentration and fluorescence intensity was found. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study Schizophyllum commune ISTL04 was grown on Leucaena leucocephala wood (LLW) for secretome analysis and schizophyllan production. There is no report on extracellular protein profile and schizophyllan production on woody biomass by this fungus under submerged fermentation conditions. Leucaena leucocephala , a promising bioenergy crop having high holocellulose content was used as substrate without pretreatment. The maximum sugar, extracellular protein and exopolysaccharide (EPS) production during fermentation was found to be 8.53 ± 0.07 mg mL −1 , 391 ± 7.51 mg L −1 and 4.2 ± 0.1 g L −1 or 0.21 g g −1 LLW on day 18 respectively. The secretome profile was dominated by glycoside hydrolases followed by carbohydrate esterase and other oxidative enzymes. EPS was further characterized by FTIR and GC–MS for functional group, monomer composition and linkage analysis and was identified as schizophyllan. The result indicated that LLW can be utilized as a low cost substrate for enzyme cocktail and schizophyllan production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Schizophyllan and scleroglucan are water-soluble polysaccharides having repeating units consisting of three β-1,3-linked glucose residues in the main chain and a single β-1,6-linked glucose residue as the side chain. This polysaccharide dissolves as a triple helix in an aqueous solution and shows a cooperative order-disorder transition between the side chain and solvent molecules while retaining the triple helical conformation. Periodate and subsequent chlorite oxidations selectively modify the side chain glucose to provide the corresponding dicarboxylate units. Optical rotation measurements and differential scanning calorimetry were performed on carboxylated schizophyllan/scleroglucan (‘sclerox’) samples to investigate the effects of the degree of carboxylation on the order-disorder transition in deuterium oxide with 0.1 M NaCl. The transition curves for the sclerox samples are strongly dependent on the degree of carboxylation. The modified side chains cannot take the ordered structure, resulting in a reduction of the transition enthalpy. The transition temperature for carboxylated schizophyllan becomes lowered and the transition curve broadens with increasing the degree of carboxylation. The permanent disordered units are included in a trimer by the carboxylation to inhibit a long sequence of the ordered units. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this work, we suggest procedure for manufacturing of highly pure schizophyllan (SPG) cleaved into shorter fragments by ultrasonication. The ultrasonicated SPG (uSPG) was prepared from Schizophyllum commune submerged cultivation in bioreactor, culture broth ultrasonication with 100 Ws/mL energy input, followed by depth filtration and ultrafiltration. The uSPG contained less than 0.3%w/w protein and 0.078 IU/mg endotoxin. Chemical composition and structure of the uSPG were analyzed by GC and NMR, and conformation of the molecules was documented by AFM. Apyrogenicity of uSPG was proved by MAT test. Immunomodulatory properties of native and denatured uSPG were studied in vitro with human whole blood. The LPS-spiked samples revealed immunomodulatory activity of both native and denatured uSPG. Protein array showed that native uSPG activates certain cytokines and chemokines significantly stronger than denatured uSPG. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Schizophyllan (SPG) is a water soluble β-glucan, which is obtained from Schizophyllum commune . SPG has been widely explored with its unique properties such as triple helical structure, immune-modulation, and anti-tumoral activity. In this study, we tried to fabricate SPG hydrogel via thiol-ene photopolymerization. SPG-norbornene and SPG-thiol were synthesized from ultrasonicated SPG. Two types of SPG hydrogels (SPG and PEG/SPG hybrid) were formed via thiol-ene photo-click reaction. By controlling the SPG content and stoichiometric balance of norbornene and thiol groups, swelling ratio and shear elastic modulus of SPG hydrogel could be controlled in the range of 20–60 and 0.5–10 kPa, respectively. For PEG/SPG hybrid hydrogel, we found that the triple-helical structure of SPG played a role in physical network formation with thiol-ene cross-linking. The degradability of SPG hydrogel could be also modulated by varying formulation. Therefore, such highly tunable SPG hydrogels would be utilized for various applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

beta-(1,6)-Branched beta-(1,3)-D-glucans like schizophyllan from the basidiomycete Schizophyllum commune excite various immunostimulatory effects and have been clinically tested as adjuvants. Some of the glucans are also applicable in food or petrol industry due to their viscosity and temperature stability in aqueous solution. Antibodies against these glucans could be used as tool for analysis of glucan preparations or for further research of its bioactivity. Therefore, an immune phage display library was constructed from mice immunized with schizophyllan. Three recombinant monoclonal antibodies were isolated from this library by affinity selection (panning) on schizophyllan. The half-maximal effective concentration (EC50) values for those antibodies varied between 16.4 ng mL−1 and 21.3 ng mL−1. The clones showed binding specificity not only for schizophyllan but also for other beta-(1,6)-branched beta-(1,3)-D-glucans of similar macromolecular structure. Denaturation of the secondary structure led to a reduced antibody binding, indicating an epitope requiring the correct conformation of the triple helical structure of the glucans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Equine gastric ulceration effects condition, performance, and behavior. Prevalence of ulcers in horses can reach 80% to 100%. After reviewing the literature, we propose an oral polysaccharide preparation will be effective in treating equine gastric ulceration. Ten adult horses with gastric ulceration were used to evaluate the clinical efficacy of a polysaccharide gel containing a blend of hyaluronan and schizophyllan for 30 days. Posttreatment gastroscopies were conducted to determine treatment findings, and images were scored. Percent healing was assessed comparing initial images to posttreatment findings. Of the horses treated with the combinational therapy, 90% showed complete resolution and/or improvement in ulcerative areas, increased appetite, weight gain, and positive behavioral changes. This study provides evidence that gastric ulceration in active horses can be successfully treated with a naturally safe and effective polysaccharide blend of hyaluronan and schizophyllan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Schizophyllan (SPG), a β -glucan produced by the fungus Schizophyllum commune , possesses a β -(1 → 3)-linked backbone with single β -(1 → 6)-linked glucose side chains at approximately every third residue. In this study, we screened SPG-producing strains of S. commune from different provinces in China. A candidate strain (NTU-1) with a high SPG yield was chosen, and the fermentation conditions were optimized. The optimal carbon and nitrogen sources were sucrose (40 g/L) and yeast extract (20 g/L), respectively. The optimal conditions for pH and temperature were 5.0 and 28 °C, respectively. Inclusion of 0.2 mg/L of 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid in the medium further increased the SPG concentration. In a 5-L bioreactor, the fermentation cycle was reduced from the initial seven days to five days, and the concentration of SPG obtained was 21.3 g/L, which is the highest reported to date. In addition, we evaluated the bioactivity of the SPG prepared using strain NTU-1. The results showed that SPG had certain characteristics of anti-oxidation, anti-photoaging, and inhibition of melanin production, making it a promising reagent for skin care. • A strain S. commune NTU-1 with high SPG yield potential was screened. • The highest SPG concentration of 21.95 g/L was obtained by fermentation optimization. • SPG treatment improved the anti-photoaging ability of L929 cells. • SPG can inhibit melanin synthesis of B16F10 cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]