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Monin Obukhov Similarity Theory (MOST) is one of the cornerstones of surface layer meteorology and as such it is widely applied in models and for data analysis. One major disadvantage of using MOST for describing land-atmosphere interactions is that all turbulence properties are described as a function of the same limited set of key parameters. Therefore, MOST is in particular not valid over heterogeneous terrain (Andreas et al., 1998). To study the limits of MOST, deviations of similarity functions from their homogeneous versions need to be linked to the degree of heterogeneity (which may be different for different scalars, i.e. water vapor, CO2 and heat (Moene and Schüttemeyer, 2008)). In particular, the degree to which observations at a given point are influenced by different sources should be known. Footprint models can be used to partition EC (eddy covariance) measurements in scalar fluctuations originating from the different land use types in the measurement area. Calculations are made within footprint models to estimate the contribution of each unit element of the upwind surface area to a measured vertical flux. However, validations of footprint models with natural tracer experiments using several EC-stations and land use types are still needed. We will therefore present validation results of two analytical footprint models, using two different validation methods and several eddy covariance stations in two different landscapes. The first landscape is flat, with very small spatial variability in roughness lengths and soil properties. This mosaic-like land use pattern, together with entrainment, are expected to be the only challenge to MOST-based footprint models. The second landscape, in contrast, additionally includes slight slopes, spatial patterns in soil moisture, and some tree groups. The two sites should thus enable a characterization of the importance of different types of MOST violation. The analytical model of Kormann and Meixner (2001) and the approximately analytical model of Hsieh et al. (2000) were validated first using flux data from the Transregio experiment in Merken in August 2009. The eddy covariance observations were obtained in three adjacent fields with contrasting fluxes, a wheat, barley and a sugar beet field, as well as close to the edge between two of the fields. Two validation methods were applied: forward validation and validation by inversion. For the forward method, fluxes from the wheat, barley and sugar beet field were used together with the footprint model to estimate the flux measured at an EC-station in the barley field near the border with the sugar beet field. The inverted validation method is based on decomposed fluxes of seven eddy covariance stations in the three fields, to estimate the surface fluxes of the three underlying land use types and therewith perform a cross validation with left-out eddy covariance measurements. We secondly used EC-measurements from a more heterogeneous and complex campaign called BLLAST (in southern France in June 2011) to validate both footprint models using flux measurements from a wheat and a grass field, and from measurements at the border between these fields. Validation results will be shown and compared for both models, validation methods and datasets. Using the validated footprint models in a later stage of our study, the degree of heterogeneity at the point of observation can be quantified. Subsequently, deviations from published MOST relationships can be linked to the degree of heterogeneity.

Eddy covariance measurements are the method of choice to determine net land surface – atmosphere fluxes of energy and matter, but in some cases cannot be applied in a representative way. In particular, requirements on the measurement height and the principles underlying the fetch or footprint of the sensor inhibit straightforward application in small (

To study turbulent flows in the atmospheric boundary layer dimensional analysis is widely applied. For flows in the lower part of the atmospheric boundary layer the cornerstone of analysing experiments and modelling is Monin-Obukhov Similarity Theory (MOST). The central assumption is that once all relevant variables are identified, the number of dimensionless groups can be determined. Those dimensionless groups should be related in a universal way, irrespective of the magnitude of the individual (dimensional) variables. For MOST the list of relevant variables is limited, which is both its strength and its weakness. The main assumptions needed to limit the number of relevant variables are stationarity, horizontal homogeneity and irrelevance of processes outside the atmospheric surface layer. These conditions are easily violated in realistic situations. Although violations of MOST conditions in relation to non-universality of the MOST relationships are widely discussed in literature, this is nearly always done in a qualitative sense only. Here we will focus on the similarity relationships for standard deviations of temperature and humidity (sT and sq) and study how they deviate from universal behaviour due to heterogeneity of the underlying surface. The spatial scale of the heterogeneity we address is the scale of contrasts between individual fields (order of 100 meter). In the analysis we will use the framework presented in Moene and Schüttemeyer (2008). This study presents a detailed analysis of a dataset gathered during the BLLAST field campaign near Lannemezan (Southern France) in the summer of 2011. Three eddy-covariance systems were set up: one in a meadow (green throughout the campaign), one in a field with a mixture of cereals and peas (ripening during the campaign) and one right at the edge between the two fields ('edge station'). This setup enables us to obtain surface fluxes and other turbulence statistics both for two contrasting landuse types with homogeneous fetch as well as for a station with a heterogeneous fetch. The objective is to quantify the impact of surface heterogeneity on the dissimilarity between the similarity relationships of different scalars. The degree to which the edge station experiences a heterogeneous fetch depends on two aspects. The potential heterogeneity is determined by the contrast in surface fluxes between the two fields: the mid-day Bowen ratio of the meadow is approximately constant at 0.3, whereas the Bowen ratio of the cereal field increases from 1 to 1.5 over the course of the experiment. The midday CO2 flux is -7·10-7 kg m-2s-1 for the meadow, whereas for the cereals it increases from -2·10-7 kg m-2s-1 to +0.6·10-7 kg m-2s-1. The actual heterogeneity is determined by the wind direction, or more exactly, the location of the source area. Only if the source area of the observations is located in different fields, then the contrast in fluxes between fields will be actually relevant and lead to non-universal behaviour of MOST relationships. In order to quantify the relative contribution of the two fields in the signal of the edge station the footprint model of Hsieh et al. (2000), augmented with the crosswind distribution of Kormann and Meixner (2001), is used. The development of the fluxes of both surfaces indicates that the potential heterogeneity indeed increases in time. Furthermore, it turns out that for a significant part of the time footprint contributions come from both fields. Hence, the actual heterogeneity increases in time as well. This we express in a new heterogeneity parameter that combines the flux contrast between the fields and the heterogeneity of the land use in the footprint. The actual heterogeneity is clearly visible in the midday correlation coefficient between temperature and humidity (rTq) which decreases from 0.75 to 0.5 in the course of the experiment (rTq is of the order of 0.8 for both homogeneous fields). The mean Bowen ratio measured at the edge station is generally below 0.5, which implies that, according to Moene and Schüttemeyer (2008), one would expect that sT/¿* > sq/q* (equivalent to a relative transport efficiency ¿=rwT/rwq less than 1). This is indeed what is observed. Midday values for ¿ gradually decrease from 0.9 to 0.7. Apart from the similarity relationships for sT and sq, the relationships for CO2 standard deviation will also be discussed briefly.

One of the fundamental aspects of current research in earth system science is the proper understanding of land-atmosphere interactions. The role of the land surface is crucial in the climate system, since a large fraction of incoming solar radiation passes through the atmosphere and is converted at the surface into turbulent fluxes. For numerous regions, including the semi-arid regions, only little knowledge is available about the diurnal and seasonal cycle of land surface interactions.The semi-arid areas pose a big challenge due to the large contrasts of dry and wet situations within a seasonal cycle.This is especially valid for the semi-arid region inWest Africa, since it is one of the most climatically sensitive and ecologically unstable regions in the world. The variability of weather and climate in the region is strongly influenced by complicated interactions and feedbacks between the land and the atmosphere. To analyze and to predict these interactions and feedbacks it is inevitable to measure and model the involved components. Since standard methods for this purpose are not always applicable to the heterogeneous surface inWest Africa, new measurement and modeling techniques have to be applied.The overall objective of this thesis is to analyze and to model the land surface interactions intheVolta basin,West Africa, by using meteorological data obtained in the framework of the GLOWA-Volta project. A focus is put on diurnal and seasonal time scales. For measuring turbulent fluxes the key instrument is the large aperture scintillometer.This robust method yields area-averaged fluxes over complexterrain, which arerequired when analyzing meteorological data from heterogeneous surfaces. It is foundthat it is a suitable technique for the kind of environment also in comparison to different measuring techniques.Based on the analysis of the measurements, two different land surface schemes are evaluated. Both schemes are not able to reproduce the measured seasonal cycle in surface fluxes. Several changes are proposed to obtain enhanced model performance.Based on the earlier findings a model is constructed, combining the best parts of each of the two land surface schemes. It is shown that the performance of the new formulation is more realistic. Using a factorial design as the sensitivity analysis method it is assessed, which parameters are the mostimportant.Furthermore it is found that those important parameters and their interactions change significantly during one season.As a final step the gained knowledge is utilized to construct a simple satellite based algorithm to obtain surface water flux as the important flux on a regional basis. For evaluating this first order approach the large aperture scintillometer is utilized to evaluate fluxes on satellite pixel scale.

Chlorophyll fluorescence (ChlF) information offers a deep insight into the plant physiological status by reason of the close relationship it has with the photosynthetic activity. The unmanned aerial systems (UAS)-based assessment of solar induced ChlF (SIF) using non-imaging spectrometers and radiance-based retrieval methods, has the potential to provide spatio-temporal photosynthetic performance information at field scale. The objective of this manuscript is to report the main advances in the development of UAS-based methods for SIF retrieval with non-imaging spectrometers through the latest scientific contributions, some of which are being developed within the frame of the Training on Remote Sensing for Ecosystem Modelling (TRuStEE) program. Investigations from the Universities of Edinburgh (School of Geosciences) and Tasmania (School of Technology, Environments and Design) are first presented, both sharing the principle of the spectroradiometer optical path bifurcation throughout, the so called 'Piccolo-Doppio' and 'AirSIF' systems, respectively. Furthermore, JB Hyperspectral Devices' ongoing investigations towards the closest possible characterization of the atmospheric interference suffered by orbital platforms are outlined. The latest approach focuses on the observation of one single ground point across a multiple-kilometer atmosphere vertical column using the high altitude UAS named as AirFloX, mounted on a specifically designed and manufactured fixed wing platform: 'FloXPlane'. We present technical details and preliminary results obtained from each instrument, a summary of their main characteristics, and finally the remaining challenges and open research questions are addressed. On the basis of the presented findings, the consensus is that SIF can be retrieved from low altitude spectroscopy. However, the UAS-based methods for SIF retrieval still present uncertainties associated with the current sensor characteristics and the spatio-temporal mismatching between aerial and ground measurements, which complicate robust validations. Complementary studies regarding the standardization of calibration methods and the characterization of spectroradiometers and data processing workflows are also required. Moreover, other open research questions such as those related to the implementation of atmospheric correction, bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF) correction, and accurate surface elevation models remain to be addressed.

Passive measurement of sun-induced chlorophyll fluorescence (F) represents the most promising tool to quantify changes in photosynthetic functioning on a large scale. However, the complex relationship between this signal and other photosynthesis-related processes restricts its interpretation under stress conditions. To address this issue, we conducted a field campaign by combining daily airborne and ground-based measurements of F (normalized to photosynthetically active radiation), reflectance and surface temperature and related the observed changes to stress-induced variations in photosynthesis. A lawn carpet was sprayed with different doses of the herbicide Dicuran. Canopy-level measurements of gross primary productivity indicated dosage-dependent inhibition of photosynthesis by the herbicide. Dosage-dependent changes in normalized F were also detected. After spraying, we first observed a rapid increase in normalized F and in the Photochemical Reflectance Index, possibly due to the blockage of electron transport by Dicuran and the resultant impairment of xanthophyll-mediated non-photochemical quenching. This initial increase was followed by a gradual decrease in both signals, which coincided with a decline in pigment-related reflectance indices. In parallel, we also detected a canopy temperature increase after the treatment. These results demonstrate the potential of using F coupled with relevant reflectance indices to estimate stress-induced changes in canopy photosynthesis.

International audience; Terrestrial gross primary productivity (GPP) plays an essential role in the global carbon cycle, but the quantification of the spatial and temporal variations in photosynthesis is still largely uncertain. Our work aimed to investigate the potential of remote sensing to provide new insights into plant photosynthesis at a fine spatial resolution. This goal was achieved by exploiting high-resolution images acquired with the FLuorescence EXplorer (FLEX) airborne demonstrator HyPlant. The sensor was flown over a mixed forest, and the images collected were elaborated to obtain two independent indicators of plant photosynthesis. First, maps of sun-induced chlorophyll fluorescence (F), a novel indicator of plant photosynthetic activity, were successfully obtained at both the red and far-red peaks (r2 = 0.89 and p 0.05). The spatial relationships found at high resolution provide valuable insight into the critical role of spatial heterogeneity in controlling the relationship between the far-red F and the GPP, indicating the need to consider this heterogeneity at a coarser resolution.

Remote estimation of Sun-induced chlorophyll fluorescence emitted by terrestrial vegetation can provide an unparalleled opportunity to track spatiotemporal variations of photosynthetic efficiency. Here we provide the first direct experimental evidence that the two peaks of the chlorophyll fluorescence spectrum can be accurately mapped from high-resolution radiance spectra and that the signal is linked to variations in actual photosynthetic efficiency. Red and far red fluorescence measured using a novel airborne imaging spectrometer over a grass carpet treated with an herbicide known to inhibit photosynthesis was significantly higher than the corresponding signal from an equivalent untreated grass carpet. The reflectance signal of the two grass carpets was indistinguishable, confirming that the fast dynamic changes in fluorescence emission were related to variations in the functional status of actual photosynthesis induced by herbicide application. Our results from a controlled experiment at the local scale illustrate the potential for the global mapping of terrestrial photosynthesis through space-borne measurements of chlorophyll fluorescence. Key Points A novel high-resolution airborne sensor is flown Both red and far red Sun-induced fluorescence signals are accurately quantified Red and far red fluorescence tracks variations in photosynthetic efficiency

Variations in photosynthesis still cause substantial uncertainties in predicting photosynthetic CO2 uptake rates and monitoring plant stress. Changes in actual photosynthesis that are not related to greenness of vegetation are difficult to measure by reflectance based optical remote sensing techniques. Several activities are underway to evaluate the sun-induced fluorescence signal on the ground and on a coarse spatial scale using space-borne imaging spectrometers. Intermediate-scale observations using airborne-based imaging spectroscopy, which are critical to bridge the existing gap between small-scale field studies and global observations, are still insufficient. Here we present the first validated maps of sun-induced fluorescence in that critical, intermediate spatial resolution, employing the novel airborne imaging spectrometer HyPlant. HyPlant has an unprecedented spectral resolution, which allows for the first time quantifying sun-induced fluorescence fluxes in physical units according to the Fraunhofer Line Depth Principle that exploits solar and atmospheric absorption bands. Maps of sun-induced fluorescence show a large spatial variability between different vegetation types, which complement classical remote sensing approaches. Different crop types largely differ in emitting fluorescence that additionally changes within the seasonal cycle and thus may be related to the seasonal activation and deactivation of the photosynthetic machinery. We argue that sun-induced fluorescence emission is related to two processes: (i) the total absorbed radiation by photosynthetically active chlorophyll; and (ii) the functional status of actual photosynthesis and vegetation stress.