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SummaryWith the objective of reducing maternal and neonatal mortality, the Safe Motherhood Program was implemented in Nepal in 1997. It was launched as a priority programme during the ninth five-year plan period, 1997-2002, with the aim of increasing women's access to health care and raising their status. This paper examines the association of access to health services and women's status with utilization of prenatal, delivery, and postnatal care during the plan period. The 1996 Nepal Family Health Survey and the 2001 Nepal Demographic and Health Survey data were pooled and the likelihood of women's using maternal health care was examined in 2001 in comparison with 1996. Multiple logistic regression analysis indicates that the utilization of maternal health services increased over the period. Programme interventions such as outreach worker's visits, radio programmes on maternal health, maternal health information disseminated through various mass media sources and raising women's status through education were able to explain the observed change in utilization. Health worker visits and educational status of women showed a large association, but radio programmes and other mass media information were only partially successful in increasing use of maternal health services. Socioeconomic and demographic variables such as household economic status, number of living children and place of residence showed stronger association with use of maternal health services then did intervention programmes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to investigate factors that affect the revisit potential of a historic destination. This study has a conceptual framework that is based on theory and literature review of the sustainable tourism management. This is a quantitative study that collected data from 800 international visitors who visited two famous religious tourism sites in Bangkok, namely the reclining Buddha temple and the emerald Buddha temple. These visitors were selected through the accidental sampling method. The data were analyzed using path analysis. The study showed that interpretation positively affects revisit potential, local people negatively influence revisit potential, and process positively affects revisit potential. Interpretation, local people, and process have both direct and indirect influences on revisit potential.

The objective of this research is to propose an indicator to evaluate environmental impacts from the Machinery sectors of Thailand, leading to more sustainable consumption and production in this sector of the economy. The factors used to calculate the Forward Linkage, Backward Linkage and Real Benefit were the Total Environmental Costs. The highest total environmental cost was Railway Equipment which needs to be resolved immediately because it uses natural resources more than its carrying capacity, higher environmental cost than standard, and contributes low real benefit. Electric Accumulator & Battery, Secondary Special Industrial Machinery, Motorcycle, Bicycle & Other Carriages, and Engines and Turbines need to be monitored closely because they are able to link to other production sectors more than any other production sectors do, and they have high environmental cost. To decide a sustainable development strategy of the country, therefore, results of this research must be used to support decision-making.

Abstract Background Nepalese women lag behind men in many areas, such as educational attainment, participation in decision-making and health service utilization, all of which have an impact on reproductive health outcomes. This paper aims to examine the factors influencing infant mortality, specifically, whether women's autonomy has an impact on infant mortality in the Nepali context. Methods Data were drawn from the Nepal Demographic and Health Survey, 2006. The analysis is confined to 5,545 children who were born within the five years preceding the survey. Association between infant mortality and the explanatory variables was assessed using bivariate analysis. Variables were then re-examined in multivariate analysis to assess the net effect of women's autonomy on infant mortality after controlling for other variables. Results The infant mortality rate (IMR) in the five years preceding the survey was 48 deaths per one thousand live births. Infant mortality rate was high among illiterate women (56 per 1000 live births) and among those not involved in decision making for health care (54 per 1000 live births). Furthermore, infant mortality was high among those women who had more children than their comparison group, who had birth intervals of less than two years, who had multiple births, who were from rural areas, who were poor, whose source of water was the river or unprotected sources, and who did not have a toilet facility in their household. Results from logistic regression show that women's autonomy plays a major role in infant mortality after controlling other variables, such as mother's sociodemographic characteristics, children's characteristics and other household characteristics. Children from literate women had a 32 percent lower chance (OR = 0.68) of experiencing infant mortality than did children from illiterate women. Furthermore, infants of women who were involved in decision-making regarding their own health care had a 25 percent lower (OR = 0.75) chance of dying than did infants whose mothers who were not involved in healthcare decisions. Conclusion Infant mortality is high in Nepal. In this context, mother's literacy and involvement in healthcare decision making appear to be the most powerful predictors for reducing infant mortality. Hence, in order to reduce infant mortality further, ongoing female education should be sustained and expanded to include all women so that the millennium development goals for the year 2015 can be attained. In addition, programs should focus on increasing women's autonomy so that infant mortality will decrease and the overall well being of the family can be maintained and enhanced.

Background: This study estimated the cost-effectiveness of four strategies enhancing the quality and accessibility of Brief Intervention (BI) service for smoking cessation in Thailand during 2022-2030: (1) current-BI (status quo), (2) the effective-training standard-BI, (3) the current-BI plus the village health volunteers (VHV) mobilization, and (4) the effective-training BI plus VHV mobilization., Methods: By interviewing five public health officers, nine healthcare professionals aiding these services, and fifteen BI service experts, we explored the status quo situation of the Thai smoking cessation service system, including main activities, their quantity assumptions, and activities' unit prices needed to operate the current cessation service system. Then, we modeled additional activities needed to implement the other three simulated scenarios. We estimated the costs and impacts of implementing these strategies over a nine-year operating horizon (2022-2030), covering 3 years of service system preparation and 6 years of full implementation. The modeled costs of these four strategies included intervention and program costs. The study focused on current smokers age 15 years or older. The assessed impact parameters encompassed smoking prevalence, deaths averted, and healthy life-years gained. An Incremental Cost-Effectiveness Analysis compared the four simulated strategies was employed. Data analysis was performed using the One Health Tool software, which the World Health Organization developed., Results: The findings of this investigation reveal that all three intervention strategies exhibited cost-effectiveness compared to the prevailing status quo. Among these strategies, Strategy 2, enhancing BI service quality, emerged as the most efficient and efficacious option. Therefore, the expansion of quality services should be synergistically aligned with augmented training, service delivery optimization, and managerial enhancements., Conclusion: This approach is particularly poised to enhance accessibility to and the efficacy of smoking cessation interventions across Thailand., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2023 Palakai, Sornpaisarn, Sawangdee, Chuanwan, Saonuam, Katewongsa and Rehm.)

Background: The number of breastfeeding mothers participating in a labor force to generate income has been increasing in Nepal. In this regard, the study aims to assess the survival of Under 3 children in Nepal from the mother based on their labor force participation and breastfeeding status., Methods: Data for the study were obtained from the Nepal Demographic and Health Survey 2016. The sample size of the study was 2,994 live births children, born in the last three years prior to the day of the interview. The robust hazard ratio and cox proportional hazard regression were conducted between dependent and independent variables with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) to conclude., Results: From a total of 2,994 live births, 85 children died within 36 months of birth. More than 80% of the non-working mothers were breastfeeding their children. The findings shows that the survival of children under-3 is positively associated with the interaction with the mother's work and breastfeeding status (Hazard Ratio 0.428, 95% CI 0.24, 0.75), family structure (Hazard Ratio 1.511; 95% CI 1.37, 1.655), relationship with the household head (Hazard Ratio 0.452; 95% CI 0.311, 0.65), wealth quintiles (Hazard Ratio 0.390; 95% CI 0.33, 0.46), caste (Hazard Ratio 0.652; 95% CI 0.60, 0.69), and religion (Hazard Ratio 2.015; 95% CI 1.09, 3.70) with model CI 95%, Log pseudo likelihood = -521.39236, prob. χ2 = 0.005 and time at risk = 52,748., Conclusions: The highest rate of child survival was from the working mothers as well as continuing breastfeeding their children followed by mothers breastfeeding the child but not working, compared to mothers working but not breastfeeding the child, and mothers who were neither working nor breastfeeding their children respectively. This study provides clear evidence that breastfeeding is very important for the probability of survival of the child aged below 36 months and work of mother also have some positive impact on child survival. Employers should be encouraged to have a breastfeeding policy in the workplace through the establishment of a breastfeeding facility, and a flexible work schedule. At the same time government should also regulate the paid maternity leave and encourage societal support for the breastfeeding mothers., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

Introduction: Despite contraceptive behaviors are influenced by multiple and multilevel variables, studies on modern contraceptive use in Indonesia has concentrated on single-level and mostly individual and household variables, and less interest has been devoted to multilevel analysis that accounts for community and SDP characteristics that may affect woman's decision to use modern FP method. This study aimed to assess the role of structural and process quality of family planning care in modern contraceptive use among women in reproductive ages in Indonesia., Methods: This study analyzed data from the 2016 PMA2020 survey of 10,210 women in 372 enumeration areas in Indonesia. The data were analyzed using categorical principal component analysis and multilevel mixed-effects logistic regression., Results: The key variables for structural quality were number of contraceptive provided, SDP supports CHWs, available water and electricity, and skilled FP personnel, while the main factors for process quality were privacy of clients and provision of post-abortion service. There were significant differences across communities in how study variables associated with modern FP adoption. The finding shows the evidence of significant roles of structural and process quality FP care in modern contraceptive use. Moreover, women with high autonomy in FP decision, those who had free national/district health insurance, and those living in a community with higher proportion of women visited by CHW, had higher odds of modern contraceptive usage. Yet, women who live in a community with higher mean ideal number of children or greater proportion of women citing personal/husband/religion opposition to FP, had lower odds of modern contraceptive use than their counterparts., Conclusion: Study findings suggest improvement in structural and process quality of FP care will yield substantial growths in modern contraceptive use. Moreover, FP workers should also address adverse cultural/traditional customs in community and should target communities where the demand for modern FP was degraded by opposing social beliefs and norms. There was significant variation across communities in how individual, household, community, and SDP factors affect modern FP practice, hence, context should be taken into consideration in the development of FP intervention and promotion programs., (© 2021. The Author(s).)

Purpose: To use structural equation model (SEM) to explain falls at home in individuals with chronic stroke, based on the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF)., Materials and Methods: A cross sectional observation study was conducted in home-dwelling individuals with chronic stroke (N = 236; 148 non-fallers, 88 fallers). Participants were assessed; structural impairments using Modified Ashworth Scale, Fugl-Meyer Assessment upper (FMA-UE), lower (FMA-LE), and sensory function, ankle plantarflexor strength; activity limitations using Timed Up and Go Test, Step Test, Berg Balance Scale, Barthel Index (BI); participation restrictions using Stroke Impact Scale-participation (SIS-P); and contextual factors using home hazard environments, home safety surroundings, risk behaviors, and Fall-related Self Efficacy. The measurement model was analyzed by confirmatory factor analysis. The SEM was conducted to analyze a structural model of falls at home., Results: FMA-UE was significantly (p<0.01) associated with FMA-LE, combining as one variable in the structural impairments. In the measurement model, variables were fit to their domains, except variables of contextual factors, but the ICF domains did not correspond to disability. A structural model of falls at home demonstrated a significant (p<0.01) direct path of contextual factors and activity limitations with falls at home. The structural impairments showed a significant (p<0.01) direct path with activity limitations. All variables, except BI, SIS-P and risk behaviors, related to their domains in the structural model., Conclusions: A structural model of falls at home proposes contextual factors being the strongest association with falls at home that home hazard environments seem the most influence in its domain. The activity limitations presented by balance ability are directed to falls at home. The structural impairments are associated with falls at home through activity limitations. Home assessment to decrease home hazard environments is suggested to prevent falls at home for individuals with chronic stroke., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

This is a study of migration responses to climate shocks. We construct an agent-based model that incorporates dynamic linkages between demographic behaviors, such as migration, marriage, and births, and agriculture and land use, which depend on rainfall patterns. The rules and parameterization of our model are empirically derived from qualitative and quantitative analyses of a well-studied demographic field site, Nang Rong district, Northeast Thailand. With this model, we simulate patterns of migration under four weather regimes in a rice economy: 1) a reference, 'normal' scenario; 2) seven years of unusually wet weather; 3) seven years of unusually dry weather; and 4) seven years of extremely variable weather. Results show relatively small impacts on migration. Experiments with the model show that existing high migration rates and strong selection factors, which are unaffected by climate change, are likely responsible for the weak migration response.

Background: The aim of this study was to verify a path model of job stress using Thai-JCQ., Methods: The population of this cross-sectional study was 800 immigrant employees in the central region of Thailand in 2015 by stratified random sampling. Instruments used both the applied and standard questionnaires. Job stress was measured using Thai-JCQ dealt with psychosocial work factors. A path model of job stress using Thai-JCQ was verified using M-plus., Results: Variables could explain the job stress change by 22.2%. Working conditions, job securities, workloads had direct effect on job stress while, workloads had indirect effect as well. Wages did not have any significance., Conclusion: The results of this study have implications for public health under occupational health research and practice by making public health and occupational health professionals aware of the importance a comprehensive approach to job stress prevention in the vulnerable population.

The aims of this research were to study both direct and indirect path analyses of mental health, and to analyse a causal relationship of each variable. A cross-sectional study used stratified random sampling to select Thai immigrant employees in Pranakron Si Ayutthaya Province, Thailand. General data were analysed by number and percentage. The mental health variable was measured by THMHI-15. The latter was analysed by general statistic, and a path analysis. The results found that job conditions and distance travelled between house and workplace had a direct effect on mental health with a standardised regression weight of 0.581, and -0.443, respectively (p value <0.01). It was found that housing conditions had no effect on mental health. The income variable had a direct influence on mental health with a standardised regression weight of 0.68 (p value <0.01). This research indicated that job conditions were an important factor related to mental health.

The effects of extended climatic variability on agricultural land use were explored for the type of system found in villages of northeastern Thailand. An agent based model developed for the Nang Rong district was used to simulate land allotted to jasmine rice, heavy rice, cassava, and sugar cane. The land use choices in the model depended on likely economic outcomes, but included elements of bounded rationality in dependence on household demography. The socioeconomic dynamics are endogenous in the system, and climate changes were added as exogenous drivers. Villages changed their agricultural effort in many different ways. Most villages reduced the amount of land under cultivation, primarily with reduction in jasmine rice, but others did not. The variation in responses to climate change indicates potential sensitivity to initial conditions and path dependence for this type of system. The differences between our virtual villages and the real villages of the region indicate effects of bounded rationality and limits on model applications.

The household environment influences the health of the elderly. We studied home hazards and living arrangements and their association with falls among the elderly in Thailand. The data were obtained from a national survey among the elderly in Thailand conducted by the National Statistical Office in 2007. The survey asked about a history of falls, the household environment and possible risk factors for falls. The survey was conducted in 26,689 subjects aged > or = 60 years. The factors associated with a chance of falls were: a slippery floor in the first storey of the house (OR 1.39; 95% CI 1.21-1.59, p = 0.000), a slippery floor in the bathroom or toilet (OR 1.32; 95% CI 1.16-1.49, p = 0.000) and bathroom or toilet located outside the house (OR 1.23; 95%CI 1.12-1.35, p = 0.000). Elderly people who lived with spouse had a 32% lower chance (OR 0.68; 95%CI 0.59-0.78, p = 0.000) of experiencing a fall than those who lived alone in the house.

Objective: Study the influences of socio-demographic and social context risk factors on labor force aged mortality from communicable disease., Material and Method: A sample of 28,298 individuals were used to build a piece-wise exponential hazard model. Investigation of the cause of death used "verbal autopsy"., Result: It was found that more males are likely to die than females (Exp. = 1.54, S.E. = 0.19). Mortality risk for those who work is lower than for the jobless while mortality risk for laborers is greater than for the jobless (Exp. = 2.80, S.E. = 0.54). Migrants are more likely to die than those who have not migrated (Exp. = 12.68, S.E. = 0.22). People who live in households with debt are more likely to die than those who live in debt-free households (Exp. = 1.21, S.E. = 0. 17). Environmental problems and drinking water quality have significant positive relationship with death due to communicable disease., Conclusion: A health prevention plan for individual, household, and community level for this labor force aged population needs to be provided.

This paper blends quantitative with qualitative data in an investigation of community and contraceptive choice in Nang Rong, Thailand. Specifically, it develops an explanation of 1) method dominance within villages, coupled with 2) marked differences between villages in the popularity of particular methods. The quantitative analysis demonstrates the importance of village location and placement of family planning services for patterns of contraceptive choice. The qualitative data provide a complementary perspective, emphasizing the importance of social as well as physical space and giving particular attention to the structure of conversational networks.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the reasons that rural people in Nan Province choose particular contraceptive methods, and places of services. The study utilizes the data from the study on the Impact and Efficiency of the Family Planning Program in Thailand: Phase II, which applied in-depth interview and small group discussion techniques. Findings indicate that wanting to limit the number of children to 2, wanting to space pregnancy, the limit of land, the conflict with working situation, and economic hardship are the reasons for using family planning. The major sources of contraception are health center, community health office, village health volunteer, village health practitioner, the border patrol police unit, and the military unit including other government agencies in the areas. As for the reasons for choosing a particular contraceptive method, convenience in practice and on obtaining services, desire for more children and concern over side effects are important.