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Ever increasing global population necessitates the need to increase availability of affordable foods with high nutritional quality. Chickpea being the second most important grain legume cultivated worldwide has the great potential to alleviate problems of protein malnutrition and hidden hunger. The objective of the present investigation was to characterize a diverse set of 402 germplasm comprising of more than 100 commercial cultivars widely cultivated and utilized by breeders for grain protein in two contrasting environments to explore the magnitude of natural genotypic diversity present in the cultivated chickpea and the scope for enhancing it and its quality through breeding. The cultivars containing more than 25 to 30.44% grain protein have been found in the study and large scale production of such protein rich cultivars is expected to increase availability as well as consumption of high quality chickpea necessary to overcome all forms of malnutrition. Trait specific germplasm containing grain protein up to 33.56% are also identified for their further utilization as potential donors in the chickpea improvement programme. The amino acid profiling of selected high and low protein containing genotypes showed considerably greater average amino acid score for all the essential amino acids than the WHO recommended requirement values and is comparable to those of the ‘complete protein’ sources of food suggesting that chickpea deserves to be considered as a ‘complete protein’ source.

Five desi (GL 12,021, GL 29,095, GL 29,078, H11 22 and CSJ 515) and three wild (GLW 22, GLW 58 and GLW 187) chickpea cultivars showed induced defense response against Helicoverpa armigera infestation as a result of enhanced activities of superoxide dismutase, catalase, peroxidase, ascorbate peroxidase, glutathione reductase, polyphenol oxidase, phenylalanine ammonia lyase, tyrosine ammonia lyase in leaves, pod walls and seeds. Catalase activity increased in leaves of GL 12,021, H11 22, GL 29,095, CSJ 515, GLW 22, and GL 29,078 after infestation compared to resistant check; catalase and peroxidase activities in GL 29,095 and GL 29,078; ascorbate peroxidase and glutathione reductase activities in leaves of GLW 58. The increased activity of superoxide dismutase in pod wall of H1122; catalase in pod wall of 29,078, GL 29,095 and GL 22; ascorbate peroxidase and glutathione reductase in pod wall of GLW 58; phenylalanine ammonia lyase and tyrosine ammonia lyase in pod wall of GLW 187, H11 22, GL 20,978, GLW 22 and GLW 58 after infestation as compared to resistant check might be responsible for mitigating infestation induced oxidative stress. MDA content decreased in leaves, pod wall and seeds of GLW 187 and GL 12,021 after infestation. Lower percent pod damage (9.58-12.44%) in GL 12,021, GLW 187, GL 29,095, H11 22, GL 29,078, GLW 22 and GLW 58 as compared to resistant (16.18%) and susceptible (21.50) checks might be attributed to differential induced defense mechanism in them. The identified desi and wild genotypes might be used in breeding program to develop cultivars with improved resistance to herbivore.

Productivity of chickpea (Cicer arietinum) under current climatic conditions is severely limited by water deficit and high temperatures, either alone or in combination. Breeding for improved tolerance, and increasing understanding of the physiological and biochemical mechanisms underlying tolerance, are imperative for achieving yield stabilisation. We evaluated 36 chickpea genotypes including 21 interspecific derivatives (from the cross C. arietinum ICCV96030 × C. pinnatifidum IC525200), their parents, 10 elite genotypes, and three checks (drought tolerant, heat tolerant, drought and heat susceptible) under three environments: timely sowing with irrigation, timely sowing with drought stress, and late sowing leading to heat stress. Four parameters were considered: seed yield, proline content, membrane permeability index, and relative leaf water content. Although the average seed yield plummeted under both stresses, the impact of high temperature was more pronounced. Mean leaf water content declined, whereas membrane permeability index and proline content increased, under both stresses. Leaf water content showed a significant positive correlation with seed yield under all environments, and thus can be employed as an early-stage screening strategy in breeding programs for developing stress tolerant genotypes. Based on estimated stress susceptibility indices for seed yield, derivative line GLW605 was identified as a promising donor for both drought and heat tolerance. Additionally, three derivative lines (GLW607, GLW649, GLW677) were found tolerant to drought, and one derivative line (GLW669) showed tolerance to heat alone. Yield levels of the identified lines were statistically on par with respective tolerant checks. Results suggest that tolerance to drought and heat was successfully introgressed from the wild species, C. pinnatifidum, into the cultivated background. The promising derivative lines can be employed for developing multi-stress tolerant cultivars.

Co-ordination between carbon and nitrogen metabolism plays a vital role in maintaining the source-sink relationship between the reproductive structures (inflorescence and seed). The present investigation was carried out to study carbon and nitrogen metabolism in quinoa genotypes IC411824, IC411825, EC507747 and EC507742 at different stages of anthesis and post -anthesis, which could affect seed growth and maturity. Carbon metabolism enzymes such as acid invertase, sucrose synthase (cleavage), and sucrose phosphate synthase showed increased activity from 75 to 90 days after sowing (DAS) in inflorescence of quinoa genotypes, which might be responsible for the assimilation of carbohydrates required for seed development during the post-anthesis period. Activities of acid invertase and sucrose synthase (cleavage) were observed to be maximum in seeds of quinoa genotypes at 110 DAS, then decreased as seed development progressed, reaching a minimum near seed maturity at 124 DAS. Nitrogen metabolizing enzymes such as glutamate dehydrogenase and nitrite reductase plays a central role in the re- assimilation of amides from the amino group of asparginase at 90 DAS in inflorescence and 124 DAS at seed maturity. IC411825 and EC507747 genotypes had better availability to assimilate the nutrients and their remobilization during the onset of seed development. The pattern of carbon and nitrogen metabolism enzymes at different stages of inflorescence and grain development influenced the source sink relationship mediating partitioning and accumulation of assimilates during of anthesis and post anthesis periods of grain development in quinoa, which eventually led to grain development and yield establishment.

Yellow mosaic virus (YMV) transmitted by whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) causes yellow mosaic disease (YMD) in blackgram cultivars only during kharif season but disease was not observed in the same cultivars sown during spring season. The main objective of the present investigation was to study the cooperative role of various antioxidative enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), guaiacol peroxidase (GPOX), glutathione reductase (GR), monodehydro ascorbate reductase (MDHAR), dehydroascorbate reductase (DHAR) along with non- enzymic antioxidants and free radical scavenging activities under natural epiphytotic disease conditions in black gram cultivars during kharif and spring season. Three black gram cultivars-KUG253 (highly susceptible to YMD), MASH114 (resistant) and Cross (KUG253 × MASH114) at F5 generation were sown during both the seasons. During the kharif season, YMV caused severe chlorosis only in KUG253 cultivar at 40 days after sowing (DAS) which affected its quantum efficiency by 58% as compared to the spring season. Higher specific activities of MDHAR, DHAR, and GR in Cross and MASH114 cultivars during kharif season at 20DAS might have helped these cultivars to fight off YMV right from the beginning of the infection. Cross cultivar showed the highest superoxide anion scavenging activity (SASA), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl hydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging activity and total reducing power (TRP). On the other hand, KUG253 cultivar struggled to maintain the specific activity of CAT, GR, and DHAR as the disease progressed further. GPOX and APX enzymes might have tried to compensate for the loss of CAT enzyme but high specific activity of NADPH Oxidase promoted the production of harmful ROS which ultimately lead to higher oxidative damage in KUG253 cultivar.

In the present investigation, influence of water stress on redox metabolism was evaluated in the flag leaf and grains of four barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) genotypes viz DWRB 101, 432 ICARDA, Jyoti and 430 ICARDA at 10th, 20th and 30th days after anthesis (DAA). Relative water content, electrolyte leakage, antioxidative enzymes and their related metabolites were studied during drought stress. Relative water content was well maintained in both the tissues of DWRB 101 and 432 ICARDA. The upregulation of catalase at 20th DAA while ascorbate peroxidase, glutathione reductase and dehydro reductase at 30th DAA in the flag leaf and grains of DWRB 101 and 432 ICARDA may be responsible for lesser increase in H2O2 content as compared to other genotypes. Moreover, the downregulation of superoxide dismutase was comparatively higher in Jyoti and 430 ICARDA. The redox homeostasis was well established during the stress in DWRB 101 and 432 ICARDA by maintaining comparatively higher ratios of ascorbate/dehydroascorbate and reduced/oxidized glutathione. Therefore, scrutiny of data indicated that DWRB 101 and 432 ICARDA may perform better under drought stress in comparison with Jyoti and 430 ICARDA.

Phytochemicals and naturally occurring antioxidants in grapefruits (Citrus paradisi Macf.) prevent oxidative damage and reduce the risk of chronic diseases such as obesity, diabetes, cancer, and cardiovascular diseases in humans. In the present study, the antioxidant activities and phenolic compounds in the juice, peel, and pulp of four grapefruit varieties (Marsh Seedless, Flame, Rio Red, and Red Blush) were analyzed in relation to fruit maturity. The fruit peel exhibited higher antioxidant activity, total phenolic content (TPC), and total flavonoid content (TFC) than the fruit juice and pulp. The antioxidant activities in juice unveiled an increasing trend with fruit development. However, the hydroxyl scavenging activity declined at 180 days after fruit set (DAFS), whereas the TPC and TFC decreased with fruit maturity. The antioxidant activities, TPC, and TFC (except superoxide anion radical scavenging activity) in the fruit peel increased with fruit maturity. With progression of fruit maturity, the antioxidant activities and TFC in fruit pulp decreased, whereas the TPC increased. The Rio Red and Red Blush varieties exhibited more TPC, superoxide activity, and hydroxyl activity at commercial maturity, whereas the Flame variety displayed more TFC. The Red Blush grapefruit variety was most desirable for table purpose use because it demonstrated the highest antioxidant activity, TPC, and TFC in the juice and pulp. However, the peels of Flame and Rio Red varieties were also rich sources of antioxidant compounds that could be used for industrial products. The findings would be helpful for both the nutraceutical industry and crop improvement programs.

Yield reduction in lentil crop due to weed infestation is a key hindrance to its growth due to poor weed-crop competition. Imazethapyr (IM), a selective herbicide, target acetolactate synthase (ALS) which catalyzes the first reaction in biosynthesis of branched chain amino acids, required for plant growth and development. The objective of the present study was to investigate the impact of IM treatment on weeds, ALS enzyme activity, antioxidant capacity, osmolyte accumulation, growth and yield related parameters in lentil genotypes. Two IM tolerant (LL1397 and LL1612) and two susceptible (FLIP2004-7L and PL07) lentil genotypes were cultivated under weed free, weedy check and IM treatments. Weed control efficiency reached its peak at 21 days after spray (DAS). Imazethapyr treatment decreased chlorophyll and carotenoid content up to 28 DAS with higher reduction in susceptible genotypes. FLIP2004-7L and PL07 had reduced plant height and lower number of pods under IM treatment which resulted in decreased seed yield. Higher ALS activity in LL1397 and LL1612 at 21 DAS, higher antioxidant capacity and glycine betaine content both at 21 and 28 DAS and lower decrease in relative leaf water content might be mediating herbicide tolerance in these genotypes that led to higher seed yield. The identified IM tolerance mechanism can be used to impart herbicide resistance in lentil.The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12298-022-01244-x.

Background: Exponentially increasing population and everchanging climatic conditions are two major concerns for the global food security. Early sowing in second fortnight of October is an emerging trend with farmers in Indo Gangetic Plains to avoid the yield losses from terminal heat stress. This also benefits the use of residual soil moisture of rice crop, conserving about one irrigation. But most of the available wheat cultivars are not well adapted to early season sowing.Methods and Results: Two In-house developed SHWs, syn14128 and syn14170, were screened for juvenile heat stress. Seedling length, biochemical parameters and expression of amylase gene immediately after heat shock (HS) of 45°C for 12hr and 20hr and 24hr indicated a significantly lower MDA, H2O2 and higher free radical scavenging activities. Syn14170 reported higher total soluble sugar (TSS) under both HS periods, while syn14128 had a sustainable TSS content and amylase activity under HS as well as the recovery period. Conclusions: Both the SHWs had a lower oxidative damage along with high free radical scavenging under heat stress. The higher expression of amy4 along with sustainable TSS after heat stress in syn14128, indicated it as a potential source of juvenile heat stress tolerance. Variable response of SHWs to different biochemical parameters under heat stress opens the future perspectives to explore the enzymatic pathways underlying these responses.

Exponentially increasing population and everchanging climatic conditions are two major concerns for global food security. Early sowing in the second fortnight of October is an emerging trend with farmers in Indo Gangetic Plains to avoid yield losses from terminal heat stress. This also benefits the use of residual soil moisture of rice crop, conserving about one irrigation. But most of the available wheat cultivars are not well adapted to early-season sowing.Two in-house developed SHWs, syn14128 and syn14170, were screened for juvenile heat stress. Seedling length, biochemical parameters, and expression of amylase gene immediately after heat shock (HS) of 45 °C for 12 h and 20 h, and 24 h indicated significantly lower malondialdehyde, hydrogen peroxide, and higher free radical scavenging activities. Syn14170 reported higher total soluble sugar (TSS) under both HS periods, while syn14128 had a sustainable TSS content and amylase activity under HS as well as the recovery period.Both the SHWs had lower oxidative damage along with high free radical scavenging under heat stress. The higher expression of amy4 along with sustainable TSS after heat stress in syn14128 indicated it as a potential source of juvenile heat stress tolerance. Variable response of SHWs to different biochemical parameters under heat stress opens future perspectives to explore the enzymatic pathways underlying these responses.

The present study was conducted to assess the physiological and biochemical responses in the leaves of ten chickpea accessions trifurcated into moderately tolerant, intermittent and moderately sensitive on the basis of their yield losses via drought susceptibility index. Moderately sensitive accessions recorded higher decline in number of leaves and dehydrogenase activity and increased membrane permeability index (MPI) under receding moisture conditions. However, moderately tolerant genotypes, viz. GL 29078 and ICC 4958, maintained number of leaves and optimal dehydrogenase activity and lower MPI in leaves at reproductive stages by enhanced enzymatic activity of superoxide dismutase, catalase and ascorbate peroxidase that upregulated their antioxidative defense system at 75% moisture reduction levels. Furthermore, the tolerance capacity was maintained in moderately tolerant genotypes (IPCK-2009-165 and ICC 4958) due to increased proline level that acted as a positive loading variable component in principal component biplot analysis and lowered malondialdehyde content levels in leaves at receding moisture levels. Assessment of leaf tissue-specific response under lysimetric screening and its final correlation with yield adds to paramount importance and uniqueness to the current study.

Twenty chickpea cultivars were germinated under control and different levels of salt stress induced by sodium chloride and out of these, three desi (PDG 3, GL 12003, C 106) and two kabuli (FLIP-08-125-C and GLK 28127) cultivars were selected on the basis of embryonic axis growth, biomass, salinity stress tolerance index. Antioxidative enzymes, non-enzymatic antioxidants proline and proline metabolizing enzymes and free radical scavenging activities were estimated in embryonic axes of these selected cultivars under control and salt stressed conditions. Higher activities of catalase and Δ1-pyrroline-carboxylate synthetase (P5CS) and sustained activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and ascorbate peroxidase (APX) in embryonic axis along with higher SOD and glutathione reductase and maintained APX in cotyledons might be mediating salt stress tolerance in kabuli cultivar FLIP-08-125-C. Higher proline content, enhanced P5CS activity and decreased proline dehydrogenase activity in embryonic axis along with higher free radical scavenging activities both in cotyledons and embryonic axis in desi cultivar PDG 3 might be mediating salt stress tolerance by maintaining osmotic balance and reducing oxidative damage.

Lentil is an important pulses crop but it's short stature and slow growth rate make it vulnerable to weed competition, limiting crop productivity. There is need to identify herbicide tolerant genotypes and their tolerance mechanism. The present investigation was conducted to understand the effect of imazethapyr (IM) treatment on accumulation of methylglyoxal (MG) and its detoxification mechanism in IM-tolerant (LL1397 and LL1612) susceptible (FLIP2004-7L and PL07) genotypes sown under control (weed free), weedy check (weeds were growing with crop) and sprayed with imazethapyr. The enzymes of glyoxalase pathway (glyoxalase I, II and III) and non glyoxalase pathway (methylglyoxal reductase), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), glutathione content, gamma-glutamyl-cysteine synthetase (γ-GCS) were estimated in lentil genotypes at different days after spray. Higher activities of glyoxalase I, II and III and MGR along with the increased glutathione content (GSH) content in LL1397 and LL1612 under IM treatment as compared to FLIP2004-7L and PL07 might be responsible for lowering MG accumulation and increasing lactate content, which is end product of these pathways. Enhanced LDH activity in LL1397 and LL1612 might be responsible for energy production via TCA cycle that might be responsible for growth and recovery of tolerant genotypes after IM treatment. Higher γ-GCS activity in tolerant genotypes led to increased glutathione content required for glyoxalase pathway. However, decreased activities of glyoxalase enzymes and MGR in susceptible genotypes result in MG accumulation which limit plant growth. This is the first ever study elucidating the role of MG detoxification pathway conferring IM tolerance in lentil.

The present investigation was carried out to understand the impact of carbon and nitrogen metabolism in quinoa genotypes IC411824, IC411825, EC507747 and EC507742 during pre-anthesis stage. It was observed that activities of acid invertase, sucrose synthase (cleavage) and sucrose phosphate synthase (SPS) increased up to 75 days after sowing (DAS) and this might be responsible for providing reducing sugars for the development of vegetative parts. Enhanced activities of nitrate reductase, glutamate synthase, glutamine synthetase during vegetative growth of leaves and stem at 90 DAS assist the fixation of ammonia on glutamate molecule to synthesize amino acids at early stages. However, the glutamate dehydrogenase and nitrite reductase play a central role in the re-assimilation of amides from the amino group of asparaginase. As a result, these photosynthetic products will be responsible for providing both the energy and the C-skeletons for ammonium assimilation during amino acid biosynthesis. Leaves and stem of IC411824 and IC411825 had higher total phenol and total flavonoid content. DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) radical scavenging activity was found to be higher in leaves of IC411825 and in stem of IC411824 and IC411825 indicating their capability to act as natural antioxidants.

1BL/1RS translocation is widely used around the world to enhance wheat yield potential, resistance to various diseases, and adaptation. However, the translocation is combined with inherent quality problems associated with reduced dough strength and dough stickiness due to the presence of Sec-1 on proximal end and absence of GluB3/GliB1 on distal end. Two NILs, one carrying the distal (1RSRW) and the other carrying the proximal (1RSWR) fragment from 1BS, in background of Pavon were used for transferring these two loci in yellow rust resistant version of two elite wheat varieties PBW550+Yr5 and DBW17+Yr5. Foreground and background marker assisted selection was done for the Sec-1- and GluB3+ alongwith Lr26/Yr9/Sr31, Pm8 and 1RS loci in the advancing generation. BC2F5:6 NILs with absence of Secalin and presence of GluB3/GliB1 loci were evaluated for two years in replicated yield trial. A positive correlation of thousand grain weight (TGW), harvest index (HI), and tiller number per meter (TNpM) with yield (YD) with significant GxE effect was observed. Further multivariate analysis of these traits contributed maximum to the effective yield. Thirty promising NILs were identified with Sec-1-/GluB3+ alongwith with high yield contributing parameters.

A unique trait, i.e. yellowing of apical/young leaves in response to low temperature and high relative humidity was identified in a chickpea genotype, ICCX110069. To determine inheritance pattern of this trait, ICCX110069 was crossed to four other genotypes, GL14050, GL14049, GL14059 and SAGL152117, that exhibited normal green apical leaves under similar environmental conditions. The F1, F2, F3, BC1F1 and BC1F2 generations were generated. A ratio of 13 normal green leaf: three yellow leaf was found to be the best fit, indicated digenic gene action with suppressor effect of normal green leaf over the expression of yellowing of apical/young leaf trait. The chlorophyll content was significantly lower, while guaiacol peroxidase activity was significantly higher in yellow leaves of ICCX110069 as compared to green leaves of the same genotype and of GL14049, indicating the competence of antioxidative defence mechanism involved with the expression of this trait.

Forty three oat genotypes including six cultivars and thirty seven advance breeding lines were evaluated for composition of carbohydrates, total soluble proteins, minerals, antinutritional factors such as phytic acid, saponin and tannin and fiber (β-glucan, cellulose and lignin) content. The average contents of total soluble sugars, starch and total protein were 5.3, 494.3 and 182.9 mg/g respectively. The average content of zinc (8.3 mg/100 g) was higher than iron (3.5 mg/100 g) in oats. The oat genotypes were then sorted out into high, medium and low categories following the equal distribution method. Ten genotypes (OL-10, OL-125, OL-1769, OL-1835, OL-1841, OL-1843, OL-1847, OL-1865, OL-1873, OL-1876) possessed low antinutritional factors in terms of phytic acid, saponin and tannin contents. Among them, OL-1843 and OL-1865 were considered nutritionally best as they lied in higher/medium range of starch, zinc, total soluble protein, β-glucan and iron. They were followed by OL-1873, which possessed high contents of total soluble sugars, starch and zinc together with the medium amounts of total fructose and iron. Therefore, all these genotypes may be considered good for human consumption and for use in breeding programs.

Fifteen cultivated (Ten desi, five kabuli) and fifteen wild species of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) were compared for nutritional traits, antinutritional factors and antioxidant potential. The average crude protein content in desi, kabuli and wild species was found to be 25.31%, 24.67% and 24.30%, respectively; total soluble sugars in these genotypes were 38.08, 43.75 and 33.20 mg/g, respectively and total starch content in these genotypes was 34.43, 33.43 and 28.77%. Wild species had higher antioxidant potential as compared to cultivated genotypes due to higher free radical scavenging activity, ferric reducing antioxidant power and reducing power. Kabuli genotypes had lower antioxidant potential than desi genotypes. Desi genotype, GL 12021 had high crude protein and total starch content, lower phytic acid and saponin content and higher antioxidant potential. GNG 2171 had high crude protein and total soluble sugar content and lower tannin and phytic acid content. Kabuli genotype L 552 possessed high total soluble sugar and total starch content, high Zn and Fe content and lower tannin, saponin and trypsin inhibitor content. Wild species C. pin ILWC 261 had high crude protein, lower phytic acid and trypsin inhibitor content and higher DPPH radical scavenging activity and hydroxyl radical scavenging activity. The observed diversity for quality traits in cultivated and wild genotypes can be further used.

Chickpea, an important food legume, is primarily grown on marginal soils with low soil fertility. Although chickpea can fix N, soil phosphorus (P) deficiency in crop growing areas is a major limiting factor for chickpea production. This study was undertaken to evaluate twenty-five chickpea cultivars for morpho-physiological traits and yield under low and normal phosphorous conditions. Based on morpho-physiological traits such as length and area of roots and shoots, root length density, root and shoot biomass, chlorophyll content, number of nodules and root tips, tolerance indices and yield, these cultivars were characterised into susceptible (ICC67, ICC1915, ICC2593, ICC5337, ICC5879, ICC8950, ICC13441, ICC1483, ICC15606 and ICC15888), tolerant (ICC10755, IG72070, ICCV97105, ICCV2, ICCV92809, ICCV92337 and ICCV95423) and the remaining cultivars were moderately tolerant to phosphorous-deficit conditions. Higher activities of enzymes of phosphorous metabolism such as acid phosphatase and phytase in roots and nodules of tolerant chickpea cultivars (ICCV97105, ICCV92337, ICCV95423) as compared to susceptible cultivars (ICC67, ICC15606, ICC15888) at different developmental stages might be attributing to their better performance for growth parameters and productivity traits under phosphorous-deficit conditions.

Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan) is one of the most important pulse crops. Though the crop accumulates maximum biomass, a proportionally low final yield is obtained due to higher partitioning of dry matter towards vegetative growth and flower and fruit/pod drop. Therefore, there is a need to reduce the plant height and improve the source–sink relationship. In the present study, the effect of foliar spray of growth substances such as mepiquat chloride (200 ml/ac), ethrel (200 ppm) and stance (200 ml/ac) at 60, 60 + 75 and 75 days after sowing (DAS) on physiological parameters as well as on sucrose-cleaving enzymes in two pigeonpea genotypes (PAU 88I and AL 201) was investigated. It was observed that the foliar spray of ethrel @ 200 ppm (60 + 75 DAS) significantly decreased the height of PAU 881 and AL 201 by 16.07% and 15.04%, respectively. Higher activities of sucrose synthase (in leaves and stem) and invertase (in leaves, stem, pod wall and developing seed) were observed with ethrel (60 + 75 DAS) treatment in both genotypes. The foliar sprays of growth substances significantly reduced the plant height and improved the fruiting branches/pods, leading to enhanced yield irrespective of genotype.

Yellow mosaic virus (YMV) transmitted by whitefly (Bemisiatabaci) infects the leaves of black gram only during the kharif season, causing yellow mosaic disease (YMD)and the incidence of infections absent during the spring season. The main objective of the present investigation was to study the regulation of the phenylpropanoid pathway involved in the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites along with proline metabolizing enzymes that regulate proline content to provide resistance against YMD in black gram. Two blackgram cultivars- KUG253 (highly susceptible to YMV), MASH114 (resistant), and their Cross(KUG253 × MASH114) were sown during the kharif and spring seasons. During the kharif season,YMD appeared only in leaves of the KUG253 cultivar, followed by severe leaf chlorosis. All three cultivars of the black gram did not show any disease symptoms during the spring season. MASH114 and Cross cultivars successfully survived despite the prevalence of disease during kharif season because of the efficient working of both the pathways. Being susceptible to YMV, the KUG253 cultivar could not maintain the flavanol content, control quinone toxicity, and regulate proline metabolizing enzymes. Hence it failed to resist the attack of the disease. The reciprocal regulation of prolinedehydrogenase(ProDH) with proline biosynthesizing enzymes such as ornithine aminotransferase (OAT), glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH),and Δ1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate synthetase (P5CS) in cultivars during infection suggested that proline accumulation was initiated as a part of induced defense response against the YMV infection in blackgram. The observed independence of phenylpropanoid and proline metabolizing pathways in imparting resistance to YMV can be significant in virus-infected plants.

Helicoverpa armigera is the most serious insect pest in chickpea that causes significant yield losses due to its feeding on vegetative (leaves) and reproductive (developing pods and seeds) parts of plants. The present aim of study was to explore response dynamics of induced defence mechanism in leaves, podwall and seeds of ten chickpea genotypes (ICC 506, ICCV 10, ICC 10393, 5283, RSG 963, GL 25016, GL 26054, ICCL 86111, ICC 3137, L 550) after insect infestation. Two chickpea genotypes namely ICC 3137 and L 550 were found to be highly susceptible to Helicoverpa armigera infestation due to higher leaf and pod damage in them as compared to rest of eight genotypes which are found to be considerably resistant due to lower damage. Insect infestation induced decreased activities of defensive enzymes such as peroxidase (POD), catalase (CAT), glutatione reductase (GR) and polyphenol oxidase (PPO), decreased free radical scavenging activities in terms of 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl hydrazyl (DPPH), decreased contents of signaling molecules such as nitric oxide ((NO), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), reduced content of insect feeding behaviour regulating molecules such as total phenols, trypsin inhibitor and accumulation of membrane damage marker such as malondialdehyde (MDA) in leaves of ICC 3137 and L 550; decreased POD activity, nitric oxide content and H2O2 in podwall of L550; decreased SOD, GR, nitric oxide content and H2O2 in seeds of L550 resulted in aggravation of infestation induced oxidative stress and makes these genotypes more vulnerable to insect damage. The resistance of rest eight chickpea genotypes to insect infestation was due to the integrative effect of up regulated defensive components in leaves, podwall and seeds such as enhanced activities of CAT, POD, GR, PPO and PAL along with accumulation of H2O2` and total phenols in leaves, increased SOD, POD, GR and PPO activities along with increased contents of trypsin inhibitor and total phenols in podwall; increased SOD, GR, PPO activities and accumulated total phenols in seeds of resistant chickpea genotypes might be responsible for causing significant shift in oxidative status of these genotypes due to scavenging of free radicals, maintenance of membrane integrity and deterrent to insect feeding. Induced glycine betaine after herbivory was found to be positively correlated with superoxide dismutase and trypsin inhibitors. H2O2 content was positively correlated with trypsin inhibitor, DPPH, ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and total phenols in leaves and with FRAP, DPPH and total phenols in pod wall indicating that H2O2 might be stimulating the cascade that will be helping to scavenge free radical species and correlation with phenols and trypsin inhibitor indicated that it act as toxicant to insect feeding.

Antioxidative enzymes, non enzymic antioxidants and signaling molecules were compared in leaves and podwall of ten chickpea genotypes namely ICC 506, ICCV 10, ICC 10393, 5282, RSG 963, GL 25016, GL 26054, ICCL 86111, ICC 3137 and L 550 after Helicoverpa armigera infestation. Two chickpea genotypes (ICC 3137 and L 550) were found to be susceptible and rest of eight genotypes were found to be resistant on the basis of leaf and pod damage due to to Helicoverpa armigera infestation. The activities of defensive enzymes like, peroxidase (POD), ascorbate peroxidase(APX) and glutathione reductase (GR); content of nitric oxide (NO), 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl hydrazyl (DPPH), ferric reducing antioxidant power(FRAP), glycine betaine (GB), total phenols (TP) and proline were higher in leaves and pod wall of resistant genotypes than susceptible genotypes. Genotype 5282 was found to be the most resistant having lower leaf and pod damage and it had higher POD, nitric oxide, DPPH, FRAP, total phenols and proline content.

Three released cultivars, forty four advance breeding lines and three wild species of pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L. Millsp) were evaluated for nutritional, antinutritional traits and antioxidant potential so as to identify promising genotypes. The average content of total soluble sugars, starch and total soluble proteins was found to be 43.66, 360.51 and 204.54 mg/g, respectively. Antioxidant potential in terms of free radical scavenging activity (DPPH), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), reducing power, hydroxyl radical scavenging activity and superoxide anion radical scavenging activity was estimated. The diversity was observed in genotypes with all the traits. AL 1960, AL 2000, AL 2009 and AL 2046 had high total soluble proteins, medium antinutritional factors and good antioxidant potential. AL 201, AL 1931, AL 1932, AL 1960, AL 2046, AL 2049 and AL 2060 had good nutritional value as protein and starch content ranged from 20 to 23 and 42 to 52%, respectively. Wild species C. scarabaeoides 1CP15683/W15 had lower carbohydrates, proteins, and antinutritional traits while high antioxidant potential due to high total phenols, DPPH, FRAP and reducing power. The diversity observed in genotypes with all the traits could be further used to develop nutritionally important genotypes.

Proline is emerging as a critical component of drought tolerance and fine tuning of its metabolism under stress affects the plants sensitivity and response to stress. Thus the study was carried out to analyse the effect of water deficit on the proline content and principal enzymes involved in its synthesis (Δ1-pyrolline-carboxylate synthetase) and catabolism (proline dehydrogenase) at different developmental stages and in different organs (roots, nodules, leaves, pod wall, and seeds) of two chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) cultivars differing in drought tolerance (drought tolerant ICC4958 and drought sensitive ILC3279). It was observed that increased Δ1-pyrolline-carboxylate synthetase activity under moderate stress in roots and nodules of ICC4958 caused an increase in proline content during initiation of reproductive development whereas increased proline dehydrogenase activity in nodules and leaves at this period helped to maintain reducing power and energy supply in tissues and proper seed development as seed biomass increased consistently up to maturity. On the other hand, roots and nodules of ILC3279 responded to stress by increasing proline content after the developmental phase of reproductive organs was over (near maturity) which negatively affected the response of pod wall to stress. Concurrent increase in activities of Δ1-pyrolline-carboxylate synthetase and proline dehydrogenase in pod wall of ILC3279 aggravated the oxidative stress and affected seed development as seed biomass initially increased rapidly under stress but was unaffected near maturity.

Stripe rust is a fungal disease that has devastated the barley production for a long time. The present study focused on the role of β-glucan, PR proteins, diamine oxidase (DAO), polyamine oxidase (PAO), key enzymes and metabolites of phenol and proline metabolism in the stripe rust resistance of barley. RD2901 with resistant behavior against stripe rust showed increased levels of PR proteins, phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL), tyrosine ammonia lyase (TAL) along with the accumulation of β-glucan and lignin which strengthen the plant cell wall during plant-pathogen interaction. It also depicted the enhanced activities of glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) and ornithine aminotransferase (OAT) coupled with the increased amounts of proline, glycine betaine and choline after infection with M-race of P. striiformis f. sp. hordei. On the contrary, the sensitive genotype Jyoti was unable to enhance the activities of most of these enzymes except PAL and OAT so that it showed an increase in lignin and choline contents only. Secondly, the increase in lignin content was less as compared to the tolerant genotype. Hence, it can be inferred that these key metabolites and enzymes of various metabolic pathways may contribute to the resistance of barley against stripe rust pathogen. This study suggested that these key enzymes and their metabolites could serve as markers for the characterization of plant defensive state that is essential for crop protection.

Yellow mosaic virus (YMV) infection occurred through whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) transmitted begomovirus in black gram during kharif season but the crop did not show any signs of infection during the spring season. To compare and comprehend the intricate link between the glutathione molecule and methylglyoxal detoxification pathway, three black gram cultivars-cv.KUG253 (highly susceptible to YMV), MASH114 (resistant) and cross (cv. KUG253 × MASH114) were sown during kharif and spring season. YMV brutally infected the leaves of cv.KUG253 in the kharif season at 20 days after sowing (DAS) and caused severe chlorosis by 40 DAS which made the leaves papery and feeble. On the contrary, YMV infection was completely absent in the other two cultivars of the black gram and during the spring season, all three cultivars exhibited normal growth without any sign of this disease. The main cytotoxic product formed under YMV infection was methylglyoxal, as significantly higher specific activity was observed for methylglyoxal reductase (MGR) and glyoxalase enzymes in the kharif season rather than spring season in all the three cultivars. Glyoxalase III has been recently discovered for the detoxification of MG and is independent of the glutathione molecule, but no report has been published till now which elaborately explains its role during the pathogenic attack on the plants.

Chickpea known as poor man’s meat has the potential to ameliorate micronutrient deficiencies. The objective was to understand heritable variation for zinc and iron in a diverse panel of 402 germplasm at two locations. Zinc and iron contents ranged from 1.10 to 5.91 mg/100 g to 0.50–8.54 mg/100 g, respectively and are comparable to some of the best biofortified crops of Harvest Plus target levels. Chickpea cultivars released for commercial cultivation were found to contain higher amounts of grain zinc and iron at both the locations. Analysis of phytic acid in cultivars with higher mineral contents showed negative correlation with zinc and iron. Heera, H82-2 and H214 for Zn; and L550, KGD1168, PG114, JG74 and ICCV6 for Fe are the cultivars identified with higher contents of Zinc (>4 mg/100 g) and iron (>6 mg/100 g). Promoting production of such iron and zinc rich cultivars will help in increasing availability and consumption of high quality chickpea necessary to alleviate hidden hunger.

Genotypic variation for morpho-physiological parameters, phosphorus (P) content and root acid phosphatase activity was studied in 52 pigeonpea genotypes. Data related to shoot (length, dry weight, number of leaves, and leaf area), root (volume, length, dry weight, area, perimeter, and number of root tips), acid phosphatase activity, and P content (root, stem, and leaf) were recorded at 60 days after sowing (DAS). The P use efficient genotypes showed high root length, root area, root perimeter, root dry weight, P content in leaves, and root to shoot dry weight ratio under the P not added condition. Significant variation was found among genotypes for root- and shoot-associated characteristics under both P treatments. The P use efficient genotypes with improved root morphological phenes have potential to acquire and utilize more P from immobile soil bound P sources may be of additional factor for increasing efficiency of acquisition and utilization of supplied P fertilizer.

Helicoverpa armigera is one of the most devastating known pest causing major economic losses. Development of insect resistance against chemical pesticides and the environment concerns are forcing researchers to pave way towards biopesticides. Our study aimed to test the efficacy of seed flour from ten pigeon pea genotypes against H. armigera development. H. armigera fed with diet containing pigeon pea seed powder exhibited larval and pupal weight reduction and certain abnormalities. Larval weight reduction varied from 19 % (AL 1495) to 37 % (AL 1677). Increase in larval duration was seen in genotypes containing higher trypsin inhibitor, phenols and phytic acid. AL 1677 was found to be the most resistant genotype with 37 % larval weight reduction followed by AL 1735. Larval-pupal intermediates were observed in diets containing AL 1495 and AL 1747 seed powder. The pupal weight reduction varied from 15.5 % to 44.5 %. Results from this study suggest the inhibitory potential of PIs and other bioactive compounds such as phenols and phytic acid from pigeon pea cultivars against H. armigera development, that can be further exploited in pest management.

In the present investigation, influence of exogenous phenolic acids on antioxidative defense system of salt stressed wheat seedlings was explored at the seventh day of growth. Electrical conductivity of 10 dS/m was used for imposing salt stress in two wheat cultivars showing contrasting behavior for salt tolerance. For observing stress mitigating effects of various phenolic acids, 20 ppm of ferulic, 10 ppm of caffeic, 10 ppm of p-coumaric, 5 ppm of salicylic, and 15 ppm of sinapic acids were selected for biochemical studies. Imposition of salinity stress reduced membrane stability as depicted by electrolyte leakage and reduction was more in sensitive cultivar HD2329 which was well correlated with its higher ROS accumulation in terms of H2O2 content and lipid peroxidation as MDA content. Exogenous application of phenolic acids reduced electrolyte leakage in NaCl-stressed seedlings of both the cultivars and maximum decrease was observed in the presence of sinapic acid, followed by caffeic, salicylic, ferulic, and p-coumaric acids. When phenolic acids were applied to salt stressed wheat seedlings, malondialdehyde content either decreased or remained unaffected in the shoots of both the cultivars, whereas hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) decreased in the roots and shoots of both cultivars maximally by caffeic and salicylic acids. Hydroxyl radical scavenging capacity of salt stressed seedlings increased to the maximum extent by the use of caffeic and sinapic acids. Catalase (CAT) and peroxidase activities were upregulated in the stressed shoots of salt-tolerant cultivar by the exogenous use of caffeic and sinapic acids. In comparison to stress, ascorbate peroxidase (APX) activity was also upregulated in stressed seedlings of both cultivars by exogenous use of caffeic and sinapic acids. In stressed seedlings of salt-sensitive cultivar, monodehydroascorbate reductase activity increased by exogenous use of caffeic, p-coumaric, salicylic, and sinapic acids. In roots of Kharchia local, use of ferulic, p-coumaric, and caffeic acids resulted into upregulation of glutathione reductase activity, whereas in salt-sensitive cultivar, only caffeic acid caused upregulation of this enzyme. Proline (Pro) content increased in HD2329 on addition of different exogenous phenolic acids in the medium, whereas in Kharchia local, addition of sinapic acid enhanced pro content. Glycine betaine (GB) content was increased by use of different phenolic acids in the stressed roots of Kharchia local. On the other hand, exogenous application of sinapic acid led to enhanced GB content in salt-sensitive cultivar. Based upon the fine regulation of CAT and APX activities and hydroxyl radical scavenging activity in relation to H2O2 content and electrolyte leakage, caffeic and sinapic acids may be regarded as the most efficient among the different phenolic acids in averting ROS-accrued oxidative damage in salt stressed wheat seedlings.

In this study, effect of heat stress on antioxidative defense system and its amelioration by heat acclimation and salicylic acid pre-treatments in three pigeonpea genotypes at seedling stage was analyzed. Heat acclimation (45°C for 3h) and salicylic acid (0.5 mM and 1 mM for 3h) pre-treatments were given to seven days old seedlings. Heat stress resulted in oxidative stress through the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) mainly H2O2 and increased peroxidation of lipid membranes (MDA content). These pre-treatments conferred protection against heat stress through reduction in MDA and H2O2 content by means of induced adaptation effect and antioxidant activity which enhanced tolerance towards heat stress. Antioxidative defense system was observed through increased activity of CAT (average 1.02 fold increase in heat acclimated, 0.77 fold in 0.5 mM SA and 1 fold in 1 mM SA) and POX (average 1.30 fold increase in heat acclimated, 1.24 fold in 0.5 mM SA and 1.37 fold in 1 mM SA) in all genotypes. Among the three genotypes, AL 1931 performed best and acquired maximum thermotolerance.

Drought induces heavy yield losses in chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.). Besides understanding the physiological and biochemical parameters contributing to drought tolerance, we need to understand the importance of one tissue in combatting drought stress-induced oxidative stress and influencing the antioxidative defence system in other tissues. The study was conducted to examine the influence of drought stress conditions on the antioxidative defence system and physiology in different tissues such as roots, leaves, nodules, pod walls and seeds at various vegetative and reproductive growth stages in two chickpea cultivars differing in rooting behaviour: ICC4958 (deep rooted) and ILC3279 (shallow rooted). The traits contributing to drought tolerance in ICC4958 were increased root area, decreased leaf area index or increase in root area, decreased leaf area; ILC3279 displayed a decrease in root area and an increase in LAI. The adaptation of ICC4958 was also accompanied by biochemical adjustments, like increases in antioxidative enzymes (superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, ascorbate peroxidase, glutathione reductase and catalase) and nonenzymatic antioxidants (ascorbic acid, proline and stress-induced proteins). However, increases in antioxidant enzymes, nonenzymatic antioxidants and proteins in ILC3279 were lower than in ICC4958. The lower malondialdehyde content and membrane permeability index in ICC4958 might be responsible for reduced damage under drought stress. Increased H2O2 content in ICC4958 was related to enhanced antioxidative defence, emphasising its role as a signalling molecule under stress. This is the first study conducted on drought stress-induced enzymatic and nonenzymatic antioxidative defence systems in underground, aboveground vegetative and reproductive tissues in chickpea cultivars differing in rooting behaviour.

To get a comprehensive view of drought tolerance mechanisms, the influence of water deficit stress on antioxidative capacity due to scavenging of free radicals and ability to maintain reduced cell state was investigated in roots, nodules, leaves, pod wall and seeds of two chickpea cultivars differing in rooting behaviour. ICC4958 (deep rooted) possessed better ability to combat water deficit-induced oxidative stress relative to ILC3279 (shallow rooted) as revealed by increase in total phenol, reducing power, ferric reducing ability and capacity to scavenge 2,2-Diphenyl-1-picryl hydrazyl (DPPH) and OH free radicals. Effect of water deficit stress on photosynthetic pigments of these cultivars was also studied. The investigation revealed that the influence of water stress in enhancing antioxidative capacity was most prominent in roots of ICC4958 among all other tissues as revealed by increased total phenols, DPPH and OH free radical scavenging activity and total reducing power under stress. However, roots of ILC3279 suffered a decrease in total phenolic content, total reducing power and DPPH free radical scavenging activity under prolonged stress, which was reflected in reduced antioxidative defence in reproductive tissues like decreased reducing power in pod wall and ferric-reducing antioxidant power ability in seeds.

Twenty seven fababean genotypes acquired from different agroclimatic regions of India were evaluated for iron and zinc content and genetic diversity using RAPD markers. The number of pods/plant, number of seeds/pod and 100 seed weight, iron and zinc content in the genotypes ranged from 14–46, 2.8–3.6, 20.4–28.3, 2.47–4.19 mg/100g and 2.55–4.90 mg/100g, respectively. The genotypes analyzed for their genetic diversity and relationship using RAPD primers showed polymorphism and polymorphic information content and resolving power varied from 0.61 to 0.88 and 0.88–6.66, respectively. Cluster analysis based on mineral content and genetic diversity showed that the genotypes HB184 and HB186 as well as PRT12 and RFB5 showed close relationship both through molecular and nutritional analysis.

Seeds of fourteen chickpea genotypes (GL 25016, GL 26054, ICCL 86111, GL 28185, GL 29303, GL 28389, CE 1, CE 9, CE 35, GL 28390, PBG 5, GPF 2, GL 21107 and L 550) were evaluated for their stress tolerance capacity against Helicoverpa armigera. DPPH radical scavenging activity, glycine betaine, reducing power, total protein, trypsin inhibitor, H2O2 and proline was higher in seeds of resistant chickpea genotypes than the susceptible genotype (L550). MDA content was higher in susceptible genotype than the resistant genotypes. DPPH radical scavenging activity was negatively correlated with pod damage which shows higher free radical scavenging activity in resistant genotypes than susceptible genotype. Clustering of chickpea genotypes shows that resistant genotypes and moderately resistant genotypes form cluster with each other while susceptible genotypes do not form any cluster with any other genotype. SDS-PAGE results showed that content of higher molecular weight protein was higher in resistant genotypes than the susceptible genotype while low molecular weight protein was higher in susceptible genotypes than the resistant genotypes.

Heat stress during reproductive stage of lentil leads to array of physiological and morphological changes affecting lentil production. The effect of high temperature stress (30°-35°) was studied on thirty three lentil genotypes during winter (rabi) trial 2013–2014. Six genotypes comprising three tolerant (LL1372, LL1361, LL1396) and three sensitive (EC78390, LL1380, LL1390) were selected which further raised under timely sown (TS) and late sown (LS) conditions during winter (rabi) trial 2014–15 for biochemical analysis. The higher accumulation of proline content along with higher activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) was observed in late sown tolerant genotypes, might be helping in reducing oxidative stress caused by reactivite oxygen species (ROS). The higher accumulation of malondialdehyde (MDA) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) content was found in sensitive genotypes might be responsible for membrane damage. The positive and significant correlation was observed in CAT, SOD, and proline whereas these three biochemical parameters showed negative correlation with MDA and hydrogen peroxide content.

Ten pigeon pea genotypes (four moderately resistant, three intermediate, two moderately susceptible and one unknown status) were evaluated for their efficacy against bovine trypsin and Helicoverpa armigera (H. armigera) gut proteases. The trypsin inhibitor content in pigeon pea genotypes varied from 147.75 (TIU/g) (AL 201) to 177.85 TIU/g (AL 1495). Sodium dodecyl-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) of seed extracts revealed different proteins of molecular weight ranging from 15.6 kDa to 98.5 kDa. Using gelatin SDS-PAGE, six different trypsin inhibitors with bovine trypsin were identified and four of them with relative mobility (Rm) 0.39, 0.78, 0.84 and 0.93 were present in all the ten genotypes. Five H. armigera protease inhibitors (PIs) were detected using the gelatin SDS-PAGE. Four of them also inhibited the bovine trypsin. One (35.3 kDa) was specific only for H. armigera gut proteases. Two protease inhibitors (15.6 kDa and 20.1 kDa) were specific for bovine trypsin. However, it appears that it is the unspecific PI with Rm 0.39 (51.5 kDa) and 0.93 (16.6 kDa) which mainly determine the resistance towards H. armigera in pigeonpea.